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REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER 

/ 



TO THR 





l 


/PARIS EXPOSITION 


18 6 7 


NOTES UPON THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION AT PARIS, 1867, 


/ 

/ 

BY WILLIAM P. BLAKE, 

COMMISSIONER FOR THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA TO THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION AT PARIS, 
1867, AND DELEGATE OF THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 


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SACRAMENTO: 

D. IV . GKLWICKS, STATE PRINTER, 

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e,v -r 6 Th 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER 


TO THE 


PAJRIS EXPOSITION, 1867. 


NOTES UPON THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

AT PARIS, 1867, 

BY WILLIAM P. BLAKE, 

t 1 

COMMISSIONER FOR THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA TO THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION AT PARIS, 
1867, AND DELEGATE OF THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 


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TABLE OF 1 CONTENTS 


LETTER TRANSMITTING THE REPORT. 

CHAPTER I.—General View op the Paris Exposition op 1867. — The Building — List of 
Groups and Classes—History of Human Labor—The Park and its Structures—The Re¬ 
served Garden—Agricultural Display at Billancourt—Statistical Information—Distribution 
of Prizes—Awards to California Exhibitors. 

CHAPTER II.— Notes upon the Woods and the Products op the Forest. —Display of Forest 
Products of France—Of Brazil—Of Canada—Australian Display and Notices of Large 
Australian Trees—Australian Plants Suitable for Planting on Dry and Sterile Tracts— 

Forests of Russia, Norway and Finland-Australian Forests—United States—Cork and 

its Sources—Resins—Staves—Osiers for Baskets—Manufacture of Paper from Wood. 

CHAPTER III. —Iron, Steel, Copper, Zinc and other Useful Metals. —The Displays of 
Iron and Steel in General—Steel in the United States—Swedish Iron and Steel—Krupp’s 
Steel and Notice of his Establishment—Large Ingot—Railway Tyres—Steel Products of 
Bochum Company—Remarkable Castings of Car Wheels—French Exhibits—Forged Iron 
—Ornamental Iron Castings—Accurate Gauges—Copper and Zinc—Copper Ores of Chile— 
Mines of Prince Demidoff—Malachite—Nickel Ores and Products of Sweden and other 
Countries—Cobalt—Quicksilver—Lead Ores. 

CHAPTER IV.— Gold, Silver, Platinum and the Rare Metals. —Gold and its Ores from 
California—From Colorado Territory—Australia—Total Gold Product of Australia—Statis¬ 
tics of Australian Mines for 1866—Queensland and Nova Scotia—Brazil—Russian and 
other Gold Regions—Display of Johnson, Matthey & Co. of London—Silver and the Ores 
of Silver—Nevada—California—Poorman Lode, Idaho—Kongsberg Silver Mines of Nor- 
way—Chilean Silver Regions—Silver Mines of Freiberg, Saxony—Silver Lead Ores and 
Assays of them—Platinum and the Manufactures from it—Large Boilers, Ingots and other 
Apparatus—Apparatus for Assayers—Magnesium—Iridium—Osmium and other Rare 
Metals. 

CHAPTER V.— Useful Minerals, Materials for Porcelain, Ornamented Stones and 
Gems. —Emery—Graphite from Various Localities, particularly from Bohemia—Cryolite 
and History of the Industry of Cryolite—Ores of Potash and Notice of the Stassfurth 
Mine_Potash Manures for Beet-root Culture—Manufacture of Saltpetre—Borax of Cali¬ 

fornia—Porcelain and the Materials for its Manufacture—Mica—Ornamental Stones of 
Russia — Large Jasper Vase — Candelabra of Rhodonite — Ornamented Panels—Paper 

Weights Onyx Marble—Aberdeen Granite—California Marble—Precious Gems of Russia 

and Siberia—Sapphires—Diamonds of Large Size and Various Colors—The Art of Cutting 
and Polishing Diamonds—Rose-colored Diamond—Rough Diamonds and Black Diamond* 
—Diamond Cementr—Opals—Turquoise—Beryl. 




4 


CHAPTER VI.— Civil Engineering — Suez Canal — Beton—Asphalt Pavements. —Models of 
Public Works—Breakwater of Tarragona—Suez Canal—Artificial Stone for the Founda¬ 
tions—Progress of Public Works in France—Cements and Beton—Dry Ashphalt used for 
Roadways—Remarkable Properties of this Asphaltic Limestone—Method of Preparation 
and Laying—Bitumen—Cost of various Works in Bitumen and Asphalt. 

CHAPTER VII.— Mining Machinery at the Exposition. —Mining Tools—Rock-drilling Ma¬ 
chines—Diamond Drill of Leschot—Machines for Cutting Coal—Tools for Boring Shafts 
and Method of Lining Wet Shafts—Hoisting Engines and Apparatus—Cables of Rope and 
Wire—Steel Cages and Wagons—Crushing and Dressing Machines. 

CHAPTER VIII.— Wines and Fermented Drinks, Alcohol—Beet-root Sugar, Vinegar, 
Mustard and Chicory.— Wines of Various Countries—Of the United States—Pasteur’s 
Discovery—The Disease of the Silkworm also visible under the Microscope—Wines in 
France—Production of Alcohol and Eau de Vie in France—Cider—Beer—Beet-root Sugar— 
Manufacture and Improvements in the Manufacture of Sugar—The Osmogene Apparatus— 
Production of Vinegar, Mustard and Chicory. 

LIST OF EXHIBITORS OF OBJECTS FROM CALIFORNIA AT THE PARIS EXPOSI¬ 
TION OF 1867. 

CATALOGUE OF THE MINERALS AND ORES SENT FROM CALIFORNIA TO THE 
EXPOSITION. 


LETTER TRANSMITTING THE REPORT. 




Hon. H. H. Haight, 

Governor of the State of California: 

/ 

Sir : I have the honor to submit the following report upon the Paris 
Universal Exposition of eighteen hundred and sixty-seven. It consists 
of brief notices of some of the objects and industries which appeared to 
be of special importance or interest to California, and it is based partly 
upon a series of letters which, during the progress of the Exposition, I 
addressed to the Mining and Scientific Press, of San Francisco, and 
which were published. These letters have been revised and greatly 
augmented. 

The variety of productions of California displayed at Paris was se¬ 
cured, in great part, by the joint exertions of the State Agricultural 
Society and a Committee of the Chamber of Commerce, including citi¬ 
zens of San Francisco. The influence and aid of the daily press of San 
Francisco was also freely given, and the Pacific Mail Steamship Com¬ 
pany and the Panama Bailroad Company transported all the articles 
over their lines without charge. 

Owing to the absence of any appropriation by the State to pay the 
expenses of the representation at Paris, my arrival there was delayed 
until June. At that time most of the objects sent from California had 
arrived safely, and through the attention and care of Mr. Edgar Mills, 
of Sacramento, Delegate of the State Board of Agriculture, had already 
been placed in the Exhibition. 

The sum of one thousand dollars, raised by subscription among the 
citizens of San Francisco, was forwarded to me, and had been applied 
towards the incidental expenses of the representation. 

Yery respectfully, your obedient servant, 

WILLIAM P. BLAKE, 

Commissioner for the State of California to the Universal Exposition 

at Paris, eighteen hundred and sixty-seven, and Delegate of the State 

Board of Agriculture. 







REPORT 


UPON THE 


UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION AT PARIS, 1867 . 


CHAPTER I. 


GENERAL VIEW OF THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1867. 


THE BUILDING. 




The general plan and arrangement of the Universal Exposition of 
eighteen hundred and sixty-seven was the result of the observation and 
experiences of the former great International Exhibitions at London in 
eighteen hundred and fifty-one, at Paris in eighteen hundred and fifty- 
five and at London in eighteen hundred and sixty-two. In those Exhi¬ 
bitions grand architectural effects were attempted, and large sums were 
expended in exterior and interior decoration. In the Exhibition build¬ 
ing of eighteen hundred and sixty-seven all architectural display was 
subordinated to the convenience of grouping and display of the various 
objects contributed. The leading feature of the plan was the division 
of the space into seven concentric galleries, each one devoted to a partic¬ 
ular group or class of objects. 

The form of the building was generally considered to be nearly ellip¬ 
tical, but it was in fact a parallelogram, with rounded ends. Its greatest 
length was four hundred and eighty-two metres (five hundred and twenty- 
seven yards), its breadth, three hundred and seven metres (four hundred 
and six yards). The outer gallery was twelve hundred metres, or three 
fourths of a mile in length. A central space was reserved for a garden, 
with fountains and statuary. The whole building was bisected in its 















8 


length by a main avenue, crossed at right angles by three others, which, 
together with avenues or passages radiating from the central space, gave 
convenient passage from one gallery or group to another. The whole 
space, thus divided, measured one hundred and forty-six thousand square 
metres, or thirty-six acres. The superficial area of the building, with 
the park, was nearly one hundred acres. The total superficial area of 
the building of the Great Exhibition at London in eighteen hundred and 
fifty-one was about twenty acres; of the Palace and its dependencies at 
Paris in eighteen hundred and fifty-five, about thirty-seven acres; and of 
the International Exhibition of eighteen hundred and sixty-two at Lon¬ 
don, about twenty-four acres. 

Of the total space one hundred and fifty-one thousand seven hundred 
and fifty and forty-six hundredths square metres in the building of eigh¬ 
teen hundred and sixty-seven, according to the official table, France 
occupied sixty-three thousand six hundred and forty and eighty-eight 
one-hundredths; Great Britain, twenty-one thousand and fifty-nine and 
eighty-seven one-hundredths; Prussia, twelve thousand seven hundred 
and sixty-five and twenty-seven one-hundredths; Austria, eight thou¬ 
sand three hundred and sixty-two and fifty-eight one-hundredths; Bel¬ 
gium, six thousand r.ine hundred and ninety-three and ten one-hun¬ 
dredths; Bussia, six thousand and sixty and seventy one-hundredths; 
the United States, three thousand nine hundred and forty-four and sev¬ 
enty-four one-hundredths square metres. 

In the Exhibition of eighteen hundred and fifty-one the total number 
of exhibitors was between fifteen thousand and sixteen thousand; in 
eighteen hundred and fifty-five, twenty-three thousand nine hundred and 
fifty-four; in eighteen hundred and sixty-two, twenty-eight thousand six 
hundred and fifty-three; and in the Exhibition of eighteen hundred and 
sixty-seven, the number reached sixty thousand. Of this number France 
had eleven thousand six hundred and forty-five exhibitors; England, 
twenty-one thousand; and the United States, seven hundred and seventy- 
eight. 

The weight of the different objects exhibited w T as not less than twenty- 
eight thousand tons. Ihe communication established by rail between 
the Palace and the railroads of the continent furnished the means of 
conducting and installing with the necessary care and celerity this enor¬ 
mous mass of material, which, for the most part, arrived at the end of 
the month of March. 

The iron pillars and girders used in the construction of the building 
weighed thirteen thousand five hundred tons; the windows and skylights 
required sixty-five thousand square metres of glass; the masonry fifty- 
two thousand cubic metres of stone and brick, and the "woodwork fifty- 
three thousand square metres of plank. The length of the sewers was 
five miles. The steam for the engines was generated outside of the 
building, and was conveyed by pipes under the surface of the ground a 
distance of one hundred feet. 

The motive power required to put the various machines exhibited in 
motion was more than that of one thousand horses. 

The machine gallery was divided into fifteen portions, corresponding* 
with the requirements of the various nations, as follows: France, eight 
portions, with a total force of three hundred and five horse power; Bel¬ 
gium, one portion, forty horse power; North German Confederation, 
one portion, thirty-five horse power; Southern Germany, one portion, 
fifteen horse power; Austria, one portion, twenty horse power; United 
States, one portion, fitty horse power; Great Britain, one portion, one 









9 


hundred horse power. The mode of transmission of the power was by 
shafts overhead, supported on columns entirely disconnected with the 
frame of the gallery of the building, in order to avoid any unpleasant 
jar or vibration. There were two parallel main shafts, with an average 
diameter of nine one-hundredths of a metre and a velocity of one hun¬ 
dred revolutions a minute. They were so arranged as to form a polygon, 
ot which the sides had an average length of about fourteen metres. 
These sides formed angles of about five degrees, and the connections 
were made either by a Cardan joint, by toothed gear or other method 
adopted by the exhibitor. 

The supply of water for the building and Park was equal to that 
required for a city of one hundred thousand inhabitants, and it was 
provided by the Exhibition and not obtained from the city. A high and 
low service was organized, as a great part of the consumption, such as 
the cascades in the Park, did not require high pressure. The high ser¬ 
vice included a reservoir of four thousand metres capacity, established 
at the summit of the Trocadero, at the height of thirty-two metres 
(about-one hundred feet) above the level of the Exhibition building, and 
a hydraulic establishment by the side of the Seine, just below the Bridge 
of Jena. The low service was fed by the pumps of the great marine 
engine of Indret, of one thousand horse power, placed by the river 
above the bridge. These pumps were capable of lifting twelve hundred 
cubic metres of water an hour. The high service supplied the irrigation 
of the Park, the fountains, the hydrants, etc., and the low service the 
condensers, the boilers, the cascades and the canals. 

Arrangements were also made for a large supply of air to aid the 
natural ventilation. This was forced into the building by separate en¬ 
gines and large pump blowers, requiring in the aggregate one hundred 
f horse power. This air, which it was estimated had a volume of seven 
hundred thousand metres per hour, was delivered through sixteen radial 
passages, corresponding with those in the building. 

In the construction of this building upwards of three hundred and 
seventy thousand cubic metres of soil had to be removed for foundations, 
drains and water pipes, and air passages. The outer circle was excavated 
so as to give a succession of vaulted cellars, built of stone and concrete 
and lined with cement. The two interior galleries of the superstructure 
were built of stone, and the seven others were of iron. The outer gal¬ 
lery, devoted to engines and machinery, was the highest and broadest of 
all, and its roof was sustained by one hundred and seventy-six iron pil¬ 
lars, which supported eighty-eight arched ribs of iron. The covering of 
the roof was made of corrugated iron plates. 

It will be noted that the form and arrangement of the galleries of the 
building corresponded with the classification or grouping of objects 
adopted by the Imperial Commission, which was briefly as follows: 


2 



10 


LIST OF GROUPS, WITH THE CLASSES ATTACHED. 


Groups. 


Class. 


GROUP I.—WORKS OF ART. 

Paintings in oil. 

Other paintings and drawings. 

Sculpture and dye-sinking. 

Architectural designs and models... 

Engraving and lithography. 

GROUP II.—APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 


Printing and books. 

Paper, stationery, binding, painting and drawing materials. 

Applications of drawing and modelling to the common arts. 

Photographic proofs and apparatus. 

Musical instruments. 

Medical and surgical instruments and apparatus. 

Mathematical instruments and apparatus for teaching science. 

Maps and geographical and cosmographical apparatus. 

GROUP III.—FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR THE USE OF 

DWELLINGS. 

Fancy furniture. 

Upholstery and decorative work. 

Crystal fancy glass and stained glass. 

Porcelain, earthen ware and other fancy pottery. 

Carpets, tapestry and other stuffs for furniture. 

Paper hangings. . . 

Cutlery... 

Gold and silver plate. 

Bronzes an.d other art castings and repouss6 work. 

Clocks and watches. 

Apparatus and processes for heating and lighting. 

Perfumery. 1 . 

Leather work, fancy articles and basket work.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

GROUP IV. CLOTHING (INCLUDING FABRICS) AND OTHER OBJECTS 

WORN ON THE PERSON. 

Cotton thread and fabrics.. 

Thread and fabrics of flax.*' 

Combed wool and worsted fabrics. 

Carded wool and woollen fabrics. 

Silk and silk manufactures. 

Shawls. 

Lace, net, embroidery and small ware manufactures.*!!.^!!!!”!!!!!! 
losiery and underclothing and articles appertaining thereto. 
Clothing for both sexes.. 


6 

7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 


14 

15 

10 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 
22 

23 

24 

25 
2G 


27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 


\ 













































11 




Groups. 


Class. 


Jewellery and precious stones.6k 

Portable weapons..du?. 


Travelling articles and camp equipage 
Toys. 


36 

37 

38 

39 


GROUP V.-PRODUCTS, RAW AND MANUFACTURED, OF MINING INDUS¬ 

TRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 

Mining and metallurgy. 

Forest products and industries. 

Products of the chase and fisheries; uncultivated products. 

Agricultural products (not used as food).t. 

Chemical and pharmaceutical products. 

Specimens of the chemical processes used in bleaching, dyeing, 

printing, etc.. 

Leather and skins. 


40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 


GROUP VI.-APPARATUS AND PROCESSES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS. 


Apparatus and processes of the art of mining and metallurgy. 

Agricultural apparatus and processes used .in the cultivation of 

fields and forests. 

Apparatus used in shooting, fishing tackle and implements used 

in gathering fruits obtained without culture. 

Apparatus and processes used in agricultural works and in works 

for the preparation of food. 

Apparatus used in chemistry, pharmacy and in tan yards. 

Prime-movers, boilers and engines specially adapted to the 

requirements of the Exhibition. 

Machines and apparatus in general. 

Machine tools. 

Apparatus and processes used in spinning and ropemaking. 

Apparatus and processes used in weaving.. 

Apparatus and processes for sewing and for making up clothing.. 
Apparatus and processes used in the manufacture of furniture 

and objects for dwellings. 

Apparatus and processes used in paper making, dyeing and 

printing..•. 

Machines^ instruments and processes used in various works. 

Carriages and wheelwrights’ work. 

Harness and saddlery. 

Bail way apparatus. 

Telegraphic apparatus and processes. 

Civil engineering, public works and architecture. 

Navigation and lifeboats. 

GROUP VII.—FOOD (FRESH OR PRESERVED, IN VARIOUS STATES OF 

PREPARATION). 

• • 

Cereals and other eatable farinaceous products and the products 
derived from them. 


47 

48 

49 

50 

51 


52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 
61 
62 

63 

64 

65 

66 


67 
















































12 




Groups. 




Class. 


Bread and pastry .. 

Fatty substaneeL ,sed as food, milk and eggs. 

Meat and fish... 

Vegetables and fruit. 

Condiments and stimulants, sugar and confectionery 
Fermented drinks. 


68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 


GROUP VIII.—LIVE STOCK AND SPECIMENS OP AGRICULTURAL 

BUILDINGS. 


Farm buildings and agricultural works. 

Horses, asses, mules... 

Bulls, buffaloes, etc.. .. 

Sheep, goats. 

Pigs, rabbits. 

Poultry... 

Sporting dogs and watch dogs.. 

Useful insects. 

Fish, crustacm and mollusca. 

GROUP IX.—LIVE PRODUCE AND SPECIMENS OF HORTICULTURAL 

WORKS. 

Hothouses and horticultural apparatus. 

Flowers and ornamental plants. 

Vegetables. 

Fruit trees.. 

Seeds and saplings of forest trees. 

Hothouse jfiants. 


74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 
81 
82 


83 

84 

85 

86 

87 

88 


GROUP X.—ARTICLES EXHIBITED WITH THE SPECIAL OBJECT OF 
IMPROVING THE PHYSICAL AND MORAL CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 


Apparatus and methods used in the instruction of children. 

Libraries and apparatus used in the instruction of adults at home, 

in the workshop or in schools and colleges.'. 

1 urniture, clothing and food from all sources, remarkable for 

useful qualities combined with cheapness. 

Specimens of the clothing worn by the people of different coun¬ 
tries. 

Examples of dwellings characterized by cheapness combined with 

the conditions necessary for health and comfort... 

Articles of all kinds manufactured by skilled workmen. 

Instruments and modes of work peculiar to skilled workmen...... 


89 

90 

91 

92 

93 

94 

95 


To each of the first seven of these groups a circle or gallery of the 
building was arranged thus: Group 1—Works of Art—occupied the 
inner circle or gallery; Group VI—the engines, machines, etc.—were 
placed in the outer gallery, a portion of which, along the outer side, was 
devoted to Group VII; and here, for example, were arranged the cereals 













































13 


the seeds, dried fruits, wines and liquors. Group Y—Raw and manufac¬ 
tured productions, such as minerals, Ores, forest products, etc.—were 
placed m the gallery adjoining that containing the machinery. By fol¬ 
lowing these galleries the visitor passed in succession among the produc¬ 
tions similar in kind of different countries, while by following the 
avenues the visitor saw in succession the various productions and manu¬ 
factures of the same country. 

After the adoption of this system it was decided to devote a portion 
of the iniiei circle to antiquities, so arranged as to give an approximate 
history of the progress of the arts from the earliest periods to the pres¬ 
ent time. This became a very interesting part of the Exposition to all 
classes of visitors. Even the pre-historic period was represented by col¬ 
lections of flint and bone implements from the caves and from the lake 
dwellings of Switzerland. The bronze period was also illustrated, and 
o o uhi ou^h the great periods of human history to the present age of 
steel. 

The nature of the articles shown in this gallery of the “History of 
Human Labor” appears more fully by the following enumeration in the 
classification, by periods, adopted by the Imperial Commission : 

First Epoch —Gaul before the use of metal. Utensils in bone and stone, 
with the bones of animals that have now disappeared from the soil of 
France, but found with these utensils, and showing the age to which they 
belong. 

Second Epoch —Independent Gaul. Arms and utensils in bronze and 
stone. Objects in terra cotta. 

Third Epoch —Gaul during the Roman rule. Bronzes, arms, Gaulish 
coins, jewellery, figures in clay; red and black potteries, incrusted enam¬ 
els, etc. 

Fourth Epoch —The Franks to the crowning of Charlemagne (A. D. 
eight hundred). Bronzes, coins, jewels, arms, pottery. MS. charters, 
etc. 

Fifth Epoch —The Carlovingians, from the commencement of the ninth 
to the end of the eleventh centuries. Ivory sculptures, bronzes, coins, 
seals, jewels, arms, MS. charters, etc. 

Sixth Epoch —The middle ages, from the commencement of the twelfth 
century to Louis XI (inclusive), fourteen hundred and eighty-three. 
Sculpture (statuary and ornamental), ivory, wood, furniture, bronzes, 
coin, seals, jewels, arms and armor, MS., miniatures, enamels, pottery, 
stained glass, tapestry, embroidery, dresses, etc. 

Seventh Epoch —The Renaissance, from Charles VIII to Henry IY 
(A. D. sixteen hundred and ten). Sculpture (statuary and ornamental), 
ivory, sculptured wood, bronzes, coins, medallions, seals, jewels, arms, 
cutlery, watch-making, miniatures, MS., painted enamels, varnished 
pottery, pottery called Henry II and Bernard Palissy, glass work, 
stained glass, tapestry, embroidery, bindings, etc. 

Eighth Epoch —Reigns of Louis XIII and XIY (A. I). sixteen hundred 
and ten to seventeen hundred and fifteen). Sculptures, ivories, furniture, 
bronzes, coins, medallions, seals, jewels, arms, watches, miniatures, MS., 
enamels, pottery of Xevers and Rouen, porcelain of Rouen and St. 
Cloud, marqueterie tapestry, embroidery, etc. 

Ninth Epoch —Reign of Louis XY (A. D. seventeen hundred and fif¬ 
teen to seventeen hundred and seventy-four). 

Tenth Epoch —Reign of Louis XYI and the Revolution (A. D. seventeen 
hundred and seventy-four to eighteen hundred). 


14 


THE PARK. 

The visitor to the Exhibition was at once forcibly impressed with the 
importance and extreme interest of the Park as part of the Exhibition. 
It was most tastefully laid out with avenues and winding paths, and was 
adorned with trees, shrubs and flowers, all planted since the ground was 
first broken for the foundation of the Palace, on what was previously 
the barren and indurated surface of the - Champs de Mars. A few short 
months sufficed to make a total change. Water was brought in, artificial 
lakes, canals and streams were made; grottos were built and gardens 
w T ere planted with flowers; constructions of all kinds arose as if by 
magic, and at the opening of the Exhibition examples were seen of the 
peculiar architecture of almost all the nations of the earth, from the 
tent of the wandering Arab to the gilded palace of Europe. In the 
vicinit}’ of the Yankee school-house one could see a palace of the Bey of 
Tunis, an Egyptian temple, the catacombs of Pome, the temple of Xochi- 
calco, Mexico, with full sized models of its ancient altars, a Protestant 
church and a Turkish harem. A small American farm-house was also 
erected and was visited by thousands of persons. 

The main entrance to the Exhibition was at the end turned towards 
the Seine, opposite the Bridge of Jena. A grand avenue about forty 
feet wide led directly through the Park to the building. This was 
the official avenue, and it was bordered by tall ornamental columns, 
which sustained a canopy of green velvet, studded with gold stars. At 
the gate you passed between two monumental bronze fountains about 
forty feet high and with basins fifty feet in diameter. That upon the 
right was of cast iron, from the celebrated foundries of Durenne, at Som- 
nevoire, which contributed many other objects of interests to the interior 
of the building. A little beyond, six tall columns of polished marble, of 
different colors, ornamented the border of a path leading to a Gothic 
church on the left, which commanded attention by the beauty of its 
form and finish and its evident solidity and apparent permanence, 
although only a temporary edifice. Its roof afforded an opportunity for 
the display of tiles of various patterns and colors, and its windows for 
the exhibition of stained glass work, by different artists. Near the 
church rose an iron light-house from the water of an artificial lake. Two 
buildings of iron and glass, one on each side of the entrance and next 
beyond the large fountains, were devoted to exhibitions of iron and steel. 
One contained huge ingots of cast steel, three feet square and broken 
across, so as to show the nature of the grain. Here, too, were enormous 
girders, in one piece; railroad rails as straight almost as the bed of a 
planing machine, and again twisted into spirals and tied into knots, so 
as to display to advantage their extraordinary strength and toughness. 
Beyond, but yet at the side of the grand avenue, a building was devoted 
to the display of English ordnance and munitions of war, from a rifle to 
the celebrated Whitworth and Armstrong guns of different sizes, with 
the shot and shell peculiar to each. 

Alongside of this building there was a pleasing vista over green lawns 
and parterres of flowers to the American annexe beyond, where could be 
seen the beautiful locomotive and various agricultural machines. On the 
left of the avenue was a building for the display of windows of stained 
and painted glass, to which the art of photography had lent its aid. Por¬ 
traits and photographs were there reproduced in all the brilliance and 
permanence of color of stained glass. 

In continuing a walk toward the entrance of the building, the visitor 


15 


reached a model English cottage of striking beauty, adorned with sev- 
eial \ai leties of exterior finish in incised piaster, in parti-colored brick 
in beton, slate, and in tiles of different patterns. In the interior the 
different manufacturers of glazed and encaustic tiles vied with each other 
in producing the most pleasing patterns upon the floors and walls. The 
different forms of ranges and stoves were displayed in almost endless 
yaiiety. A tew steps beyond took the visitor to the Imperial Pavilion, 
m Moorish stylo, and superbly furnished with the choicest productions 
of France. The marble steps were inlaid with fine mosaics, and were 
guarded by two Imperial eagles in bronze, standing upon gilt spheres. 
The building contained three apartments, and was occupied by the 
Emperor when visiting the Exhibition. 

These.details upon some of the structures met in passing through the 
Park will serve to show the general character of the other portions, 
crowded, as they were, with buildings of the greatest interest in them¬ 
selves, and for their contents. Many of them contained collections which 
were complete exhibitions in themselves. Spain, for example, filled a 
large building with a representation of its mineral and agricultural pro¬ 
ductions. Russia had several buildings—one, a model farm-house, was 
devoted to the products of its fisheries, to its furs, costumes of its inte¬ 
rior tribes, and to its agricultural machines and products. A large 
stable contained the different breeds of horses, represented by choice 
individuals. The Russian Commissioners had an office in a model Rus¬ 
sian cottage. In the part of the Park given to Holland, a brick build¬ 
ing, standing by itself among the shrubs and trees, was a complete 
diamond-cutting establishment, where several workmen were constantly 
engaged in cutting and polishing diamonds—an art that is seldom exhib¬ 
ited to the public. 

THE RESERVED GARDEN. 

A portion of the Park was separated from the rest of the Exhibition 
by a long line of ornamental iron railings, and devoted to trees, shrubs 
and flowers from all climes. An enormous structure of glass and iron 
crowning an eminence above a lake afforded a tropical atmosphere for a 
large display of palms, ferns and bananas. Some of these plants were 
at least twenty feet high, as for example the Phoenix dactilifera ; and there 
were tree ferns eight feet high, besides numerous species of palms grow¬ 
ing together, so as to make a complete forest In'other portions of the 
garden there were large conservatories and aquariums devoted to the 
yuccas and agaves, to the cactacea and to the aquatic plants—such as 
the water lilies, including the celebrated Victoria regia. The borders 
and terraces of the grounds were planted with a great variety of shrubs 
and evergreen plants, amongst which the plants of Japan and California 
were conspicuous—such, for example, as the thujas, the euonymus , the libro- 
cedus and the sequoia gigantea , mingled with the hollys and yews of 
Great Britain. 

The management of lawns, gravel-walks, borders and parterres of 
flowers was well shown by the exquisitely kept plats of grass and bor¬ 
ders between the winding paths and along the artificial stream. The 
competitive exhibitions of flowers were made there according to the sea¬ 
son, and thus insured a constant but ever varying brilliant display. The 
grottos and the fish aquariums gave an additional attraction to the place, 
and it was a delightful resort after the fatigue of a day in the building. 


16 


BILLANCOURT. 

The horticultural and agricultural display at the Champ de bars was 
supplemented by one at the Island of Billancourt, in the Seme, about 
three miles below the Exposition building. The objects and processes 
shown there were such as could not be conveniently exhibited in the 
building or in the Park—such as many of the agricultural machines, the 
various domestic animals, and the operations of ploughing, sowing, reap¬ 
ing threshing, etc. The superficial area of this island is about twenty- 
three hectares (about fifty-seven acres) and the soil, being formed of the 

alluvions of the river, is quite deep and fertile. 

The competition of agricultural machines was announced to occui in 

the following order: 

April. —First fortnight—Ploughs of all sorts, hydraulic machines, 
steam machines. 

Second fortnight— Steam ploughs, harrows, rollers, weeding machines, 
scarifiers, apparatus for the manufacture of drainage pipes and the prep¬ 
aration of clay. 

May. —First fortnight—Sowing and manuring machines, machines for 
stripping hemp and flax, vehicles, harness, weights, churns and dairy 
utensils. 

Second fortnight—Mowing and haymaking machines, rakes, apparatus 
for the compression and preservation of hay. 

June .—First fortnight—Competition of farriery, and examination of 
specimens of rural establishments. 

Second fortnight—Hay cutter, root cutter, hoes, ploughs. 

July .—First fortnight—Apparatus for shearing various domestic ani¬ 
mals. 

Second fortnight—Reaping machines and apparatus for the corn har¬ 
vest. 

August. —First fortnight—Threshing machines, and apparatus for clean¬ 
ing and preserving corn. 

Second fortnight—Ovens, apparatus for cooking vegetables, washing 
linen, manufacture of manure. 

September and October. —Examination of specimens. Various agricul¬ 
tural manufactures. 


STATISTICAL INFORMATION. 

The idea of an Exposition, as well as an Exhibition, was in a great 
measure realized. The arrangement and grouping was such as to invite 
and stimulate comparison, as well as to afford the greatest convenience 
for the study of different departments. Nearly all the different coun¬ 
tries represented published descriptive catalogues, with interesting sta¬ 
tistics and information appended to them. The most extensive and 
elaborate work of this kind was published by the Russian Commission, 
in two handsome octavo volumes, one of them a statistical 'view' of the 
productive forces of Russia, and the other a descriptive catalogue of the 
objects exhibited. Works of this character were published by Prussia, 
Belgium, Austria, Sardinia, Brazil and Chile, besides smaller pamphlets 
and circulars by the Central American republics, Australia and the 
Hawaiian Islands. Mr J. P. Whitney, the Commissioner from Colorado, 
published a notice of the Territory and its minerals in several languages, 
and distributed them freely; and Colonel D. Buel, of Austin, published 



17 


a little volume in English and French descriptive of the various mining 
districts of the eastern part of Nevada, accompanied by a map. All of 
these documents giving statistics of the resources and productions of 
the Pacific States were eagerly sought for, and many applications were 
made for statistics of the State of California. 

DISTRIBUTION OF PRIZES. 

The work of the juries commenced as soon as the Exhibition opened, 
and the awards were made very soon thereafter, and in many cases be¬ 
fore some of the contributions were fairly placed and labelled. The 
grand ceremony of the distribution of prizes was on the first of July, at 
the Palace of Industry, the building erected for the Exhibition of eigh¬ 
teen hundred and fifty-five. The recipients of grand prizes and gold 
medals received them from the hands of the Emperor, in the presence of 
seventeen thousand spectators, all comfortably seated in that magnificent 
hall. 

A report was presented at this time by M. Kouher, Minister of State 
and Vice President of the Imperial Commission, enumerating in a gen¬ 
eral way the principal operations of the Commission and of the Jury, 
stating the total number of awards and citing some of the great inter¬ 
national advantages derived from the Exposition. 

The International Jury was composed of six hundred members, chosen 
from men distinguished in science, industry, commerce and art, and of 
various nationalities. This Jury awarded : 


Grand prizes. 

Gold medals. 

Silver medals. 

Bronze medals. 

Honorable mentions 


64 

883 

3,653 

6,565 

' 5,801 


The Jury of the new order of prizes awarded twelve prizes and 
twenty-four honorable mentions. In addition, the Emperor was pleased 
to confer upon some of the most eminent of the competitors in the Exhi¬ 
bition the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honor. 

The prizes awarded to exhibitors from California were as follows: 

State of California*—Cereals. Silver medal. 

Hr. J. B. Pigne, San Francisco—Collection of California minerals. 
Silver medal. 

William P. Blake, California—Collection of California minerals. Silver 
medal. 


* The official announcement of this award reads: “ Le Gouvernement de Californie .— Cereals 
As the State of California was not an exhibitor, this destination of the award is apparently the 
result of misapprehension. The exhibitors of cereals were Mr. D. L. Perkins, Mr. J. W. II. 
Campbell and Mr. J. D. Peters. The display made by Mr. Perkins included one hundred and 
twenty varieties of seeds, neatly arranged in glass bottles and labelled, and, together w ith tho 
photograph, was the most prominent. It is the opinion of the Commissioner that the medal 
should either be given to Mr. Perkins or to the exhibitors of cereals jointly. 


3 













18 


Mission Woollen Mills, San Francisco—Exhibition of blankets, cloths 
and flannels. Bronze medal. 

C. E. Watkins, San Francisco—Photographs of Yosemite Valley. 
Bronze medal. 

Brown & Level, California—Self-detaching boat tackle. Bronze medal. 
Buenavista Vinicultural Society—Sparkling wine. Honorable men¬ 
tion. 





f. 















CHAPTER II. 


WOODS AND PRODUCTS OF THE FOREST. 


FRANCE. 

The forest products and industries of nearly every country were repre¬ 
sented in the Exposition, by sections of trees, planks, boards, mouldings, 
etc., and by collections of the tools used for cutting, hewing and sawing. 

Of all these collections, that made by France, through the “Adminis¬ 
trator of the Forests,” was the most complete, methodical and interest¬ 
ing. It occupied a space about sixty feet in length, in the second 
gallery, devoted to Group V, and was very tastefully displayed. Sec¬ 
tions of all the principal kinds of trees in the Empire were ranged along 
the wall with the interspaces filled with green moss. Each section of a 
tree was about six inches thick, and included the bark, so that the whole 
structure and outer form and appearance of the trunk was clearly shown. 
Above these, on a table which extended around the room, smaller sec¬ 
tions and portions of dressed and worked timber were arranged, with 
herbaria, photographs and drawings of forest trees. The tools used were 
grouped above, on the wall, around centre pieces, formed of boar’s heads. 
In the centre of the room a broad table sustained various models of 
forests and of sawmills, and of apparatus used in felling and transporting 
timber. There were also models of the buildings erected for the keep¬ 
ers’ lodges, and of cottages for the laborers. Some of the plans in the 
relief exhibited the important operations of the administration of forests, 
such as the replanting of the Alps. A large forest chart upon the wall, 
of France, showed in the most striking manner the distribution of the 
wooded parts of the country and the relation which exists between them 
and the geological constitution of the soil. The whole collection was 
completed by a series of specimens of the various destructive forest 
insects. 

There was also a series of publications on practical or scientific ques¬ 
tions, relating to sylviculture, and a fine collection of photographs of 
cones and foliage of the various pines and firs. 

The woodlands of the Empire of France amount to eight million 
nine hundred thousand hectares fa hectare is equal to two acres, one 
rodd and thirty-five perches), divided as follows: 




20 


M 

First —One million one hundred -thousand hectares belonging to the 
State, of which forty-nine percent, is in timber (five hundred and thirty- 
nine thousand hectares), and fifty-one per cent, in coppice, with or with¬ 
out timber. 

Second —Two million hectares belonging to communes or public estab¬ 
lishments, of which thirty-six per cent, is covered with timber, and sixty- 
four per cent, with coppice. 

Third —Five million eight hundred thousand hectares of private wood¬ 
lands, seventeen per cent, of which is timbered, and the remainder in 
coppice, with or without timber. 

The annual products of these forests are in the following proportions: 
Three for the State lands, two and seventy-five hundredths for those of 
the communes and two for those of private owners—giving a gross total 
of about twenty million cubic metres of timber, divided as follows : Tim¬ 
ber and working woods two million, and fuel, eighteen million cubic 
metres. These resources are now increasing, in consequence of the 
numerous improvements in the management ot forests and of increased 
facilities for transporting from a distance. The above and some of the 
succeeding statistics are extracted from an admirable report by De Gayf- 
fier, a member of the Admission Committee of Class Forty-one. .Not¬ 
withstanding, however, all the improvements which have been made and 
the extensive replanting of the Alps, the Pyrenees and other districts, 
the production is still far from sufficient to supply the demands of con¬ 
sumption, and the deficiency is supplied by importations from Norway, 
Russia, Germany and Italy. The importation of common woods of all 
kinds, which in eighteen hundred and fifty-five did not amount in value 
to seventy million of francs, was valued at one hundred and fifty-four 
million francs in eghteen hundred and sixty-five. 

The annual consumption of wood in France is as follows: 

First —In timber for construction purposes and wood used in manufac¬ 
tures : 


Consumers. 

Cubic metres. 

The naval and mercantile marine. 

118,000 

30,000 

600,000 

1.600,000 

3,700.000 

4,300,000 

Artillery and encdneerinfr. 

Railways. 

%J 

Building. 

Lath wood and espaliers, etc. 

River navigation, carriage building, furniture, utensils, etc.... 

Total. 

10,348,000 



Second —Firewood, thirty millions of steres; and charcoal, fifteen mil¬ 
lions of steres*. 

One of the largest tree sections shown from France was a white oak 
from Auvergne, which measured six meters in circumference—a little 


# A stere consists of three hundred and fifty-three thousand one hundred and seventy-four feet. 



















21 


over six feet in diameter—and was two hundred and thirty-seven years 
old. Ihe mountains of the Vosges afford sections of firs nearly five feet 
diameter, and near them in the display were sections of the pine which 
has been so successfully planted along the sandy barrens of the seacoast. 
These trees grow with great rapidity, and annually add one centimetre 
to their thickness, so that in one hundred years they will attain a diam¬ 
eter of about three feet. 

THE FOREST EXHIBITION OF BRAZIL. 

Next to the exhibition of the woods of France, that made by Brazil 
was perhaps the most attractive by its peculiar arrangement. A room 
twenty-five feet square, lighted from above, was devoted to these woods 
alone. The walls and ceiling were painted in imitation of the natural 
forest. You saw r around you the plants and trees of the Amazon, with 
their gorgeous foliage. The spaces between the branches and leaves 
overhead were cut out and shaded so as to give a subdued light, like that 
in the deep recesses of the forest. 

In the center of this room the specimens of w T ood were displayed in a 
grand pyramidal pile. Each tree was shown by a portion of its trunk, 
of full size and about two feet long. The ends of each were cut in three 
different directions, so as to show a cross section, an oblique section and 
one parallel with the grain. One half of the cut surfaces were polished 
and varnished. The bark was left on, so that the w r hole outward appear¬ 
ance of the trunk was preserved. A label w T as attached to each speci¬ 
men, giving the common - name and the botanical name, according to 
Endlicher. 

THE FOREST PRODUCTS OF CANADA. 

Canada made a very respectable show of its resources in lumber of 
various kinds. There were sections of the principal trees, with their 
bark, in great number. They were usually about two feet long, and 
were super-imposed one upon another, so as to make a base for several 
columns of square logs, of different woods for building purposes, set up 
about eight feet apart. These supported above a square timber of yellow 
pine, fifty feet long and ten feet square. The niches formed by this dis¬ 
position of the timber were filled with smaller specimens, and by panels 
of dressed and polished planks of pine, white wood, walnut and birch. 
The Abbe Brunet, of Quebec, Canada, sent a fine collection of Canadian 
woods, with herbaria and a series of photographs of trees and of plan¬ 
tations. He made the whole complete and instructive by a printed cata¬ 
logue of sixty-four pages, which contained a large amount of valuable 
information upon the trees of Canada. This collection, for its uniform¬ 
ity, neatness and pleasing appearance, was one of the most attractive in 
the Exhibition, and it received a gold medal. 

The woods were shown not only in sections but in polished planks 
about two feet long and eighteen inches wide. The most noticeable 
were the blistered black walnuts and the birdseye maple, the blistered 
ash and the oak. The following were given as the prices, per cubic foot, 
of some of these woods: 


White pine. 

Blistered maple 

Blistered ash. 

Blistered oak.... 
White cedar_ 


12 

20 

15 

30 

15 


Most of these trees attain a height of one hundred and fifty to one 
hundred and sixty feet, and vary from four to six feet in diameter. 

AUSTRALIAN FOREST TREES. 

In the Australian section there was an extensive series of logs and 
polished planks of the Eucalyptus Araucaria. , the acacia and others. 
These woods generally are very hard and dense, and as they can all be 
naturalized in California, and man} T of them are already introduced, 
some facts about them have a special interest. 

The extensive forest region of Australia commences in the vicinity of 
Cape Otway and extends, with occasional interruptions, through the 
southern and eastern part of Victoria, and thence chiefly on the seaward 
slopes, through East Australia, a distance altogether of about three 
thousand miles. Throughout this region the vegetation assimilates more 
than elsewhere to the floral features of continental and insular India. 
The eucalypt, which preponderate in the forests of the southern ranges, 
gradually disappear toward the north. Two species of this genus— 
Eucalyptus coriacea and E. gunnii —form dense thickets, even at a height of 
five thousand feet, within a thousand feet of the point where snow rdsts 
for the greater part of the year. Both of these species, it is said, would 
well bear transplanting to other countries in the temperate zone. 

It has recently been ascertained that some species of the eucalyptus 
attain enormous dimensions in the recesses of the Australian forests, and 
the following observations upon them are extracted from Dr. Mueller’s 
Essay *: 

“ The marvellous height of some of the Australian, and especially Vic¬ 
torian trees, has become the subject of closer investigation, since of late, 
particularly through the miners’ track, easier access has been afforded 
to the back gullies ot our mountain system. Some astounding data, sup¬ 
ported by actual measurements, are now on record. The highest tree 
previously known was a Karri-Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus colossea) measured 
by Mr. Pemberton Walcott, in one of the delightful glens of the Warren 
Iliver of \\ estern Australia, where it rises approximately four hundred 
feet high. Into, the hollow trunk of this karri three riders, with an 
additional pack horse, could enter and turn in it without dismounting. 

“ On the desire of the writer of these pages, Mr. D. Boyle measured a 
fallen tree of Eucalyptus amygdalina , in the deep recesses of Dandenong, 
and obtained for it the length of four hundred and twenty feet, with 
proportions of width indicated in a design of a monumental structure, 
placed in the Exhibition ; while Mr. G. Klein took the measurement of 


* Intercolonial Exhibition Essays, 1866. Australian Vegetation, Indigenous or Introduced con¬ 
sidered, especially in its bearings on the occupation of the Territory, and with a view of unfolding 
its resources. By Ferdinand Mueller, F. It. S., Director of the State Garden of Melbourne 

















23 


a eucalyptus on the Black Spur, ten miles distant from Healesville, four 
hundred and eighty feet high. 

“ Mr. E. B. Heyne obtained at Dandenong the following measurements 
of a tree of Eucalyptus amygdalina : 


Measurement. 


Feet. 


Length of stem from the base to the first branch. 

Diameter of the stem at the first branch. 

Length of stem from first branch to where its top portion was 

broken off. 

Diameter of the stem where broken off. 

Total length of stem to place of fracture. 

Girth of stem three feet from the surface. 


295 

4 

70 

3 

365 

41 


“ A still thicker tree measured three feet from the base, fifty-three feet 
in circumference. 

“ Mr. George W. Bobinson ascertained in the back ranges of Berwick 
the circumference of a tree of Eucalyptus amygdalina to be eighty-one feet, 
at a distance of four feet from the ground, and supposes this eucalypt, 
toward the sources of the Yarra and^Latrobe Bivers, to attain a height 
of half a thousand feet. The same gentleman found Fagus Cunninghami 
to gain a height of two hundred feet, and a circumference of twenty- 
three feet. 

“ Not merely, however, in their stupendous altitude, but also in their 
celerity of growth, wo have, in all probability, to accede to Australian 
trees the prize. Extensive comparisons instituted in the botanic gar¬ 
dens of this metropolis prove several species of eucalyptus, more partic¬ 
ularly Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus obliqua , as well as certain acacias \ __ 
for instance, Acacia decurrens or Acacia mohssima , far excelling in their 
ratio of development any extra-Australian trees, even on dry and exposed 
spots, such into which spontaneously our blue gum trees would not pen¬ 
etrate. This marvellous quickness of growth, combined with a perfect 
fitness to resist drought, has rendered many of our trees famed abroad— 
especially so in countries where the supply of fuel or of hard woods is 
not readily attainable, or where for raising shelter, like around the cin¬ 
chona plantations of India, the early and copious command of tall veg¬ 
etation is of imperative importance. To us here this ought to be a sub¬ 
ject of manifold significance. I scarcely need refer to the fact that for 
numerous unemplo 3 T ed persons the gathering of eucalyptus seeds—of 
which a pound weight suffices to raise many thousand trees—might be a 
source of lucrative and extensive employment ; but on this I wish to 
dwell, that in Australian vegetation we probably possess the means ot 
obliterating the rainless zones of the globe, to spread at last woods over 
our deserts, and thereby to mitigate the distressing drought and to 
annihilate perhaps even that occasionally excessive dry heat evolved by 
the sun’s rays from the naked ground throughout extensive regions of 
the interior, and wafted with the current of air to the east and south 
miseries from which the prevalence of sea breezes renders the more lit¬ 
toral tracts of West and North Australia almost free. Butin the economy 
of nature the trees, beyond affording shade and shelter, and retaining 
humidity 'to the soil, serve other great purposes. Trees, ever active in 

















24 


sending their roots to the depths, draw unceasingly from below the sur¬ 
face strata those mineral elements of vegetable nutrition on which the 
life of plants absolutely depends, and which with every dropping leaf is 
left as a storage of aliment for the subsequent vegetation. How much 
lasting good could be effected, then, by mere scattering of seeds of our 
drought-resisting acacias and eucalypts and casuarinas at the termina¬ 
tion of the hot season along any water course, or even along the crev¬ 
ices of rocks, or over bare sands or hard clays, after refreshing showers. 
Even the rugged escarpments of the desolate ranges of Tunis, Algiers 
and Morocco might become wooded; even the Sahara itself, if it could 
not be conquered and rendered habitable, might have the extent of its 
oases vastly augmented; fertility might be secured again to the Holy 
Land, and rain to the Asiatic plateau or the desert of Atacama, or tim¬ 
ber and fuel be furnished to Natal and La Plata. An experiment insti¬ 
tuted on a bare ridge near our metropolis demonstrates what may be 
done.” 

OTHER FOREST EXHIBITIONS. 

The other colonies of Great Britain, especially the Indies, were well 
represented by large collections of the woods peculiar to each. 

Norway sent a large assortment of worked lumber, such as planks, 
joists, flooring boards and mouldings. There are in this country three 
thousand three hundred sawmills, which employ eight thousand work¬ 
men. In eighteen hundred and sixty-five the exports of lumber amounted 
to eight hundred and sixty thousand tons, or twenty-six million eight 
hundred thousand steres, valued, approximately, at forty-five million "six 
hundred thousand francs. A little more than half of this was sawed 
timber, and this portion was sent chiefly to England and France; the 
rough lumber is exported to England and Holland. The tongued and 
grooved stuff, six and one half inches by nine eighths thick, is worth one 
franc and a half per square metre. 

Kussia exhibited a fine collection of planks and mouldings, remarkable 
for their straight grain and freedom from blemishes. Mouldings four 
inches wide and three quarters of an inch thick are sold for one and a 
half kopecks the English foot. 

Among other interesting exhibits of the various forest trees of that 
empire was one made in the form of books all of one size. The bark 
is solid and shows the bark of the tree. The covers are attached 
by hinges of leather and open in half so as to give two shallow boxes, 
in which are arranged the foliage, the fruit and the flower of the tree’ 
together with the characteristic mosses and lichens of the trunk, and a 
specimen of the coal. 

The name of the plant is printed upon morocco titles, which are at¬ 
tached in recesses cut in the bark of the back. This is one of the most 
pleasing methods of preparing and preserving a collection of native 
woods, and this notice may induce some of our amateurs to undertake 
the preparation of a similar collection for California at some future Exhi¬ 
bition. 

The Grand Duchy of Finland sent a very interesting collection of 
woods, with a descriptive catalogue, from which much valuable informa¬ 
tion may be obtained. 

AUSTRIAN FORESTS. 


The woods and fruits of this State are considered as amono- the first 
in value of its natural productions. For variety, quality and cheapness 


25 


they are hardly rivaled in Europe. The Adriatic Sea, the River Vistula, 
which flows into the Baltic, the Elbe, which empties into the North Sea, 
and the rivers which reach the Black Sea, as well as the railroads, all 
giv e facilities for cheap transportation. With these advantages, the expor¬ 
tation of wood has been constantly increasing until it ha 3 reached a total 
value of seventy-five millions of francs. 

The quantity of timber sent by the Administrator of Forests of the 
different States of Austria was so great that it could not be exhibited in 
the building, and it was therefore grouped outside in the annexe. The 
trunks, of trees were cut into convenient lengths, which were reunited on 
the ground, so that their full dimensions were shown. The principal trees 
were oaks and spruces. Among them Quercus pedunculata and Abies excelsa 
are most conspicuous. The former is five feet in diameter at the butt, 
and is interesting as the wood which is largely used for the manufacture 
of wine and beer casks and barrels. A great number of staves of all 
sizes were shown in connection with the unworked woods. Some of 
these are fifteen feet long and are intended for a grand cask to hold one 
hundred thousand French litres. There are several agencies in Paris for 
the sale of these staves. This oak grows in deep alluvial soils and forms 
thick forests, in which the trees attain a height of more than one hun¬ 
dred feet, and a diameter of from four to five feet. 

THE UNITED STATES. 

* » 

In the midst of all these extensive and careful representations of the 
forest resources of the various countries, the citizen of the United States 
was mortified at the meagreness of our exhibition in the same line. All 
that we had to show of our vast forests, full of the choicest timber, 
could be laid upon a table ten feet long and three feet wide. There 
were two bundles of very good shingles from the far West, a few irregu¬ 
lar bits of American wood, and the laurel panels and door from Boyd, 
of California. These last were very beautiful, but did not appear to 
have attracted the attention they deserved. 

There was not any ornamental door in the exhibition equal to that 
sent from California, either in accuracy of carpentry or for beauty of 
grain and general finish. It was a fine exhibition of the remarkable 
capacity of the wood of the madrona for taking stains, in imitation 
either of mahogany, rosewood or black walnut. 

A section of the great tree—the Sequoia gigantea —would have attracted 
great attention from all persons, and would have fully redeemed the 
extreme paucity of the United States display of forest products. It is to 
be regretted, also, that the samples of our ordinary commercial wood, 
such as the pine, redwood, cedar and fir were not sent on as intended. 

CORK. 

This is a forest product which is of great importance to the wine 
interest of California; and as it is possible that the cork tree might be 
introduced there with advantage, a few details will not be uninteresting. 

The principal exhibition of cork was from Algeria, and consisted of 
slabs of raw “ male cork,” eight feet six inches long, with some of sec¬ 
ond growth, fifteen feet six inches long, and specimens of raw cork bark 
of second growth, eight years old. Some of these slabs were from four 


4 




2d 


to eight inches thick. The following explanatory statement is taken 
from the report of DeGayffier: 

“ Cork is the substance lying beneath the true bark of a particular 
kind of oak, called the cork oak, which grows principally in Italy, 
Corsica, Algeria, Spain and the south of France. The tree begins to 
furnish cork at the age of from twelve to fifteen years; but the first 
cork is of poor quality, and only fit to make floats and other coarse 
objects, gnd Spanish black, which is nothing more than cork burned in 
close vessels. After the first layer has been removed from the tree the 
cork bark is deposited with more regularity, and then jdelds material 
fit for the finer purposes, such as the making of wine and other corks, 
sheets and other well-known objects used for many purposes.” 

From the period already mentioned the bark may be removed from 
the tree once in eight or ten years, and the same tree will yield cork 
twelve or fifteen times. Raw cork, or that which has merely been 
rasped, comes principally from Italy, Spain, Portugal and Algeria. 
Spain supplies nearly the whole of the manufactured cork of commerce. 
Seville is the most important entrepot of this product. The importa¬ 
tions into France in eighteen hundred and fifty-five were five hundred 
and thirty-two and a half tons, valued at two hundred and fifty-seven 
thousand two hundred and twenty-four francs. In eighteen hundred 
and sixty-five they had increased to, three thousand eight hundred 
and fifty-five tons, valued at two millions five hundred and two thou¬ 
sand six hundred and ninety-six francs. The export amounted to 
one hundred and sixty-nine and a half tons in eighteen hundred and 
fifty-five, and in eighteen hundred and sixty-five it had reached the 
figure of one thousand three hundred and nineteen and a half tons, of 
the total value of one million two hundred and thirty-six thousand nine 
hundred francs. 

The Government of France has encouraged the development of the 
riches of the cork forests of Algeria by giving long leases on merely 
nominal terms to several companies. Large sums have already been 
expended there in the preliminary barking of the trees, but as yet there 
has not been that measure of success that was anticipated. The natives 
have shown their ill will by burning several of the forests, and some of 
these enterprises have been abandoned. 

■resins. 

The following data upon the sources and consumption of resin in 
France are from the report of De Gay flier: 

“ The maritime pine tree is the only tree in France from which resin 
is extracted. The. cultivation of this tree constitutes the principal, if 
not the onl} 7 wealth of the district lying between Bordeaux and 
Bayonne. According to the nature of the soil, the pine is tapped for 
resin between the ages of twenty and forty years. The operation con¬ 
sists in making long incisions in the trunk, whence the resin exudes and 
is collected in various ways. The natural results of the bleeding of the 
pine trees are: The soft gum, or resin, which, by distillation, yields tur¬ 
pentine; the galipots , an almost solid substance, which, by evaporation, 
forms in stalactites all down the tree; the crottas , a mixture of the two 
former products; the varras, which are the galipots entirely dry and ad- 


27 


jhering to the tree. A pine tree, sixty to seventy years old, furnishes, 
on an average, about six to eight kilogrammes (fifteen to twenty pounds') 
of raw material, of which about one third is galipots and varras. The 
American war gave a great impulse to the resin trade. The following 
statistics will give an idea of the results: In eighteen hundred and 
fifty-five the exports of French resin did not amount to more than four 
thousand one hundred and thirty-three tons, of the total value of two 
million two hundred and fifty thousand francs. In eighteen hundred 
and sixty-five they had risen to the enormous total of five thousand two 
hundred and fifty tons, worth twenty-seven million two hundred thousand 
francs. The importations in eighteen hundred and sixty-five amounted 
to two thousand nine hundred and sixty tons, of the value of two mil¬ 
lion four hundred thousand francs.” 

staves. 

The wood employed in this manufacture is called “ merrain,” and is 
split out by means of a tool called a coulter. They are made of all sizes, 
from eight inches to one hundred and seventeen in length, and from 
three to ten inches wide, and from one eighth to three eighths or more in 
thickness. They are chiefly produced in Germany, Russia, Turkey and 
the United States. The coopers of Europe are largely supplied from 
the United States. The best woods are oak and chestnut. White mul¬ 
berry is used in Languedoc. The importation in France in eighteen 
hundred and sixty-five amounted to thirty-seven million six hundred 
thousand pieces, valued at twenty-six million three hundred thousand 
francs. Nearly the whole of this is consumed in the country.— Condensed 
from De Gayffers Report. 

OSIERS. 

In France the osier is the chief material used in the basket trade, 
which is carried on chiefly in the valleys of Yer, Aubeaton and Hirson, 
in the Aisne, where osiers grow in large quantities. According to De 
Gayffier’s report, accompanying the French exhibitions in this class: 
“In the Arrondissement of Verrins alone there are three thousand fami¬ 
lies engaged in basket making, who produce more than two million five 
hundred thousand francs worth annually, two thirds of which are ex¬ 
ported to England and America. The importations amounted in eigh¬ 
teen hundred and fifty-five to one hundred and five tons, of a total value 
of three hundred and twenty-one thousand francs; and in eighteen 
hundred and sixty-five only to fifty-nine tons, of the value of fifty-three 
thousand francs. The importation of osiers in bundles, which in eigh¬ 
teen hundred and fifty-five was one hundred and five tons, had risen in 
eighteen hundred and sixty-five to one hundred and eighty tons, of the 
value of twenty-two thousand francs. The exports grew in the same 
period from fifty-nine tons to seventeen hundred tons, the value of the 
last named total being estimated at three hundred and seventy thousand 
francs.” 

The production of osiers, and the manufacture of baskets and hampers 
for fruits, vegetables and wines in bottle, will probably soon become an. 
important industry in California. 

MANUFACTURE OF PAPER FROM WOOD. 

One of the most interesting exhibitions consisted^ of a machine in 


28 


action for the preparation of paper pulp, or stock from ordinary sof j 
wood. This machine was constructed at the establishment of Deckeo 
Brothers & Co., at Canstatt, Wurtemberg, and was shown in the Parle 
in a separate building. It is the invention of Henry Welter, paper mac^ 
ufacturer at Heidenheim, and was shown by himself and the construct*/ 
ors jointly. It is quite an extensive affair, and occupied considerably 
space, but was arranged so that the crowd alwaj’s attracted to it coulf 
ascend by a broad stairway on one side of the machinery, and descenq 
by a similar staircase on the other side. Billets of wood, cut and spli ^ 
to about the size ordinarily used in fireplaces, were constantly fed to th 
machine at one end, and by means of a large rasping or grinding cy { 
inder were rapidly ground or torn into shreds and pulp, which wa^ 
washed in water and finally delivered in several degrees of fineness £h| 
the other end. This paste is quite white and soft, and is used to a grer 
extent to mix with the stock or pulp obtained from rags. Specimens <. I 
printing, writing and packing papers were shown, which containe 
twenty-five to sixty-six per cent, of this paste. There are already ov< 
thirty establishments in Germany for the manufacture of paper pul ( I 
from wood. This machine received a gold medal. 


I 















CHAPTER III. 


V 
? 
f 

RON, STEEL, COPPER, ZINC, AND OTHER USEFUL METALS 

OF THE EXPOSITION. 


IRON AND STEEL. 

It was almost impossible to see and it is much less possible to describe 
all that was shown in this department. Nearly every country sent 
something that claimed attention, and Great Britain, France, Prussia, 
Austria and Bussia made overwhelming displays of iron in all its stages 
of manufacture, from the rough ore to the pig of all grades; bar and 
plate iron; steel in ingots, bars, or rolled out or drawn into wire. Each 
iron-producing country seemed to vie with every other in the exhibition 
of the strength and fiber of its wrought iron and steel. Cases upon 
cases were filled up with bars of various sizes that had been bent, 
twisted and broken so as to display the grain to the best advantage. 
Wrought iron rods and bars and railway axles were shown twisted 
into every imaginable shape. Great round bars, from three to eight 
inches thick, w T ere tied into knots. Bailway iron was twisted until it 
looked like a long screw, and all without a crack or parting a fibre. 

It is a satisfaction to know that the scientific and practical discussion 
of this subject has fallen-into the hands of Mr. A. S. Hewitt, of New 
York, one of the Commissioners, who has a very complete and valuable 
report in preparation for our Government. 

The United States, though not by any means fully represented in this 
department, had a very creditable display for variety and for purity and 
practical value. There were some large masses from the Iron Mountain 
of Missouri, and some from Lake Superior, and a few masses of the 
magnetic and specular ores of Northern New York. The specular ore 
of Sierra County, in our State, was also found in the Exhibition, and it 
was as pure and excellent in quality as any. The Peninsular Iron Com¬ 
pany, of Detroit, Michigan, sent a suite of specimens of Lake Superior 
charcoal pig iron: No. 1, suitable for foundry purposes; No. 2, rolling 
mill iron; No. 3, car wheel iron; No. 4, mottled, for malleable purposes; 
No. 5, valuable for making malleable iron and for rolling mill purposes. 

The Franklinite ore and metal was shown in connection with the 





30 


zinc ores and products of the New Jersey Zinc Company. The hard 
white iron made from this ore has already been imported and used in 
California, by the Union Iron Works, for making stamp shoes and dies 
and the jaws of rock crushers. 

Messrs. Park & Brother, of the Black Diamond Steel Works, Pitts¬ 
burg, Pennsylvania, made .a fine exhibition of cast steel in bars, round, 
octagonal and flat, made at their works. It was accompanied by beau¬ 
tifully finished edge tools made from their steel. 

SWEDISH IRON. 

In the exhibition of ores, Sweden took the lead, not only in bulk of 
specimens, but in the richness and purity of the ore. Prussia exhibited 
a splendid suite of evenly trimmed specimens of the various kinds of 
ore used, chiefly brown iron ore and spathic iron (the carbonate). 

The samples of Swedish magnetic ores were in such masses that some 
had to be left in the yard. They were about three feet long, and must have 
weighed a ton or two each. Ten of these were counted, and there was in 
addition, in the machine gallery, a grand pyramidal stack of iron and 
steel bars standing upon a foundation of blocks of ore from the various 
Swedish mines. The various pig irons were arranged in a tier just above 
the ore, and above this tier the steel and iron bars of all sizes and shapes 
Avere stacked up. The iron ores received the gold medal, the steel bars 
a silver medal, and the iron a bronze medal. 

KRUPP’S STEEL. 

The most extensive and the most costly display of steel, raw and 
manufactured, Avas sent by F. Krupp, of Essen, Rhenish Prussia. The 
Jury aAvardcd him the grand prize. Krupp’s works and manufactures 
are world renowned, and some statistical data in regard to them may be 
interesting. N , > mfi , O V( ,1 

The establishment, has been in existence for the last forty years, and 
has been gradually developing and increasing until at the present time 
the Avorks cover continuously a surface of about four hundred and fifty 
acres (English), tAvo hundred of which are under roof. In these works 
eight thousand men are employed, in addition to tAvo thousand more at 
the blast furnaces and iron pits on the Rhine and in Nassau. These 
Avorks produced in eighteen hundred and sixty-six manufactures of steel 
of the aggregated weight of sixty-one thousand tons by means of four 
hundred and tAvelve smelting, reverberatory and cementing furnaces, 
one hundred and ninety-five steam engines, from two to one thousand 
horse poAver each, forty-nine steam hammers, one hundred and ten forges, 
three hundred and eighteen lathes, one hundred and eleven planing ma- 
# chines, sixty-one cutting and shaping machines,^nd many others of less 
consequence. No less than one hundred and tAventy steam boilers are 
required to keep the engines in operation, and they evaporate one hun¬ 
dred and fifty thousand cubic feet of water in twenty-four hours. 

The yearly production is valued at over seven million five hundred 
thousand dollars, and the various objects manufactured are distributed 
all over the world. 

The representation in Paris consisted of some tAventy or thirty large 
objects, of which the most prominent Avas a cylindrical cast steel in<^ot 
weighing forty tons, fifty-six inches in diameter, and standing nearly 
tAvelve feet high. It Avas forged atone end into an octagonal shape, and is 




31 


intended for a marine crank shaft. This huge block of crucible steel is 
the largest that has yet been made. In the first London Exhibition a 
block of two and one quarter tons weight was regarded with wonder, 
and received the only Council medal in the department of steel products. 
At the former I aris Exhibition a block of five tons was shown, and to 
the London Exhibition of eighteen hundred and sixty-two one of twenty 
tons was sent.. r lhis shows the rapid progress made in the scale of 
Krupp’s operations with large masses of steel. The upper end of this 
monster ingot .of forty tons was broken across so as to show the grain. 
One half of this broken surface had been ground down and polished as 
bright as a mirror, without developing the least defect or flaw. Not 
content with this proof of the density and uniformity of the ingot, thej^ 
had cut a gash in the side about half way up, and taken out a chip 
about as large as one man could lift, and polished it, with satisfactory 
results. 

To shape this great ingot a hammer weighing fifty tons was used. All 
the cast steel productions of the establishment, with the exception of 
disk centres for car wheels, are made from ingots of a greater or lesser 
weight and with a round or square section. 

The large ingot stood upon a semi-circular platform, and served as a 
centre piece for a group of pieces of shafting, highly wrought, for loco¬ 
motive wheels anti tires, for guns and gun carriages, and many other 
objects of wrought and unwrought steel. Opposite all this was the mon¬ 
ster gun, also made of cast steel, weighing fifty tons. It is intended for 
coast defence against the attacks of iron-clads. It consists of an inner 
tube upon which are shrunk cast steel rings, which were made like rail¬ 
way tires and without welding. The' diameter of the bore is fourteen 
inches; and as it is a breech-loader, the perfection of the bore and rifling 
may be seen by looking through the gun at the muzzle. It has forty 
rifle grooves. This gun was in process of manufacture day and night 
for sixteen months without interruption. The railways had no cars 
strong enough to transport it to the Exposition, so the establishment 
was obliged to construct its own car, which was made entirely out of 
cast steel and has twelve wheels. It weighs twenty-four tons. The gun 
is for sale and is valued at one hundred and eight thousand seven hun¬ 
dred and fifty dollars. 

Cast steel railway tires form a very considerable portion of the manu¬ 
facture of this establishment. They make about forty thousand a year, 
over a third of which are for English, Indian and American railways. 
They are made out of one piece of steel without welding, and in the fol¬ 
lowing manner: Large ingots are forged out into flat lengths, from 
which are cut rectangular pieces corresponding with the height of the 
proposed tire. These pieces are then split down the centre to within a 
certain distance of each end; wedges are inserted, the slit opened out 
so that the bar is gradually, under the hammers, converted into a ring, 
which is at last formed into a tire between powerful rollers. 

Among the many other objects worthy of note were the “ angle rings ” 
for steam boilers. These are made after the same method as the tires, 
and are very perfect specimens of machine forging. One, with a diame¬ 
ter of ninety-six inches, weighed four hundred and eighty-three pounds. 
They are sold at the works at two hundred and twenty-five francs per 
one hundred kilogrammes, and any size will be made to order. Cast 
steel railway bars are also one of the chief objects of manufacture of 
the works. They are made from steel of second quality and are afforded 
at a comparatively low price—about half as much more as the cost of an 


iron rail. The durability is greatly superior. Krupp can now supply 
such rails at forty francs the kilogramme, but I have heard that there 
is a new process by which the cost is to be much reduced. 

BOCHUM COMPANY—STEEL PRODUCTS. 

• 

Next to the exhibition of Krupp, which may be styled as princely, 
the display made by the Bochum Company of Westphalia, Prussia, was 
most interesting. This company also make large objects of cast steel, 
and exhibited railway tires, shafts, axles and some remarkably large 
bells, one of which is nearly ten feet in diameter and weighs fourteen 
thousand seven hundred and fifty kilogrammes. One of the most strik¬ 
ing objects was a string of railway car wheels, twenty-two in number, 
all cast together at one operation, the junction being from hub to hub 
and by one single connecting sprue at the bottom. YV hen they are taken 
out of the sand they are centred and mounted in a lathe as one piece 
and then turned up on the edges. 

It is claimed by this company that its cast steel wheels will run on an 
average fifty-seven thousand kilometres without requiring any repair. 
One of the railway companies certifies that the puddled steel tires 
suffer a wear of one sixteenth of an inch in running twelve thousand 
kilometres, while the cast steel wheels of Bochum Company will run 
thirty-nine thousand two hundred and forty-eight kilometres before 
they are worn to an equal extent. It would be interesting to know how 
they compare with our chilled face car wheels. 

FRANCE. 

The French exhibit of iron and steel was very fine. Their largest 
steel ingot, however, weighed only twenty-five thousand kilogrammes. It 
was broken across and showed a very homogeneous fracture. Some of their 
cast steel tires made without welding, upon Krupp’s method, were twelve 
feet in diameter. A cast steel cannon weighed sixteen tons, and was turned 
up and polished all over. They showed sheets of rolled cast steel that 
were twenty-two feet long, six feet wide and half an inch thick. A large 
part of this display was in a sejmrate building in the Park, and was very 
complete and extensive. 

FORGED IRON. 

In forged iron, for ornamental and decorative purposes, the Exposition 
jvas very rich. There was a long line of gates and sections of fence placed 
between the Exposition grounds and the reserved garden. Some of 
them were beautiful in design, and wonderful in their sharpness and 
accuracy of finish. The peculiar construction of French dwellings, with 
an inside court shut out from the public streets or avenues, makes' a 
demand for highly ornamental and somewhat costly entrance gates, 
which does not exist with us. 

ORNAMENTAL CASTINGS. 

The use of cast iron for qrnamental purposes has evidently made great 
progress. The substitution of iron for bronze in artistic productions is 
of comparatively recent date, yet the visitor who saw^ the results in the 
Exhibition was compelled to acknowledge that iron will in the future be 
substituted to a great extent for the alloys of copper, in the production 




33 


of large ornamental or monumental works. As an evidence of this, we 
had the splendid monumental fountain and groups of figures of animals, 
on one side of the grand entrance to the Park, from the foundries of 
Durenne, and inside the building extensive displays of statues, busts, 
vases, stags’ heads with antlers, and a variety of tablets and smaller 
objects. From another establishment there was a splendid series of fig¬ 
ures and groups of life size, most of them Scripture subjects for the 
adornment of churches. One group, for example, represented the Cru¬ 
cifixion, with the Savior and the two thieves of life size. The form and 
spirit which the sculptor gives to the model was rendered perfectly in 
the rigid iron. Almost all of these objects were shown as they came 
from the mould. The surfaces were perfectly smooth and even, and vis¬ 
itors were amazed at the accuracy with which the different parts of the 
mould were brought together. The suture lines are sometimes hardly 
visible; again they appear as thin films rising from the surface, so that 
they may be dressed away without injury to the figure. They are all 
cast hollow, and the cores were supported by iron rods or wire. 

There was no evidence in the Exposition of an extensive application 
of cast iron to architectural decoration. It is true that the building was 
in great part made of iron, but there was little attempt at ornamentation. 
The material does not appear to be used anywhere in Europe as freely 
and with such fine architectural results as in the United States, and 
especially in California The railway stations generally are wonderful 
structures of iron and glass, but there is comparatively little attempt in 
them at artistic display. 


ACCURATE GAUGES. 

In the display of ordnance and munitions of war made by Whitworth, 
of England, there were some very interesting longitudinal sections of 
guns and rifles, which showed the remarkable perfection of the bore and 
rifling. This distinguished mechanic is known to produce some of the 
most accurate of gauges, and a few specimens are shown to illustrate 
them. A stout steel ring is handed to you through which you can pass 
a polished steel cylinder about half an inch in diameter. The fit is so 
perfect that it requires a little pressure to pass the cylinder through 
from end to end, and this pressure must be applied in the line of the 
axis; the least pressure upon the sides of the ring appears to bind upon 
the cylinder. You next take a second cylinder, apparently exactly the 
same size as the first. This passes through the ring with perfect ease, 
and, compared with the other, it is a very loose fit. Now the difference 
in diameter of these two cylinders is the 5-1000th part of an inch. Two 
perfectly plane surfaces of cast steel were shown. One of these slides 
about over the other upon a thin film or cushion of air. If by a little 
effort the air is excluded the plates are inseparable by a direct pull. 
One may be lifted by the other. 

In the same building in which Whitworth’s ordnance was shown “John 
Brown & Co., limited/’ exhibited a bar of steel, an armor plate, thirty 
feet long, three feet six inches wide and six inches thick, weighing 
eleven tons. It was planed as true as a ruler on the edges and ends, and 
appeared to be compact and homogeneous throughout. 


5 



34 

COPPER AND ZINC. 

The most attractive display of copper in its raw state was from Lake 
Superior. The collection consisted of crystallized native copper, and 
of the various interesting minerals and crystallizations which accom¬ 
pany it. There were also some of the products of smelting and a stack 
of the metal in ingots of a brilliant red color, like that of the celebrated 
copper bars of Japan, some of which may be seen in the representation 
of that Empire. The various copper ores of California were displayed 
in the same and an adjoining case with the Lake Superior specimens, 
but were more interesting for their number and variety than for their 
beauty. The brilliant mass of variegated ores from Plumas County, 
and the wonderfully rich and pure masses of red oxide of copper from 
the old Arizona mine, were most admired. Neither Union or Keystone, 
the Newton and the Cosmopolitan or the Del Ndrte County mining 
companies did themselves justice in not sending a complete suite of 
their different grades of ore. As it is, the few specimens that were in 
the Exhibition will at least gain the mines a place in the catalogue and 
a mention, perhaps, in the official reports to the various Governments. 
A series of specimens from each of our leading California mines, trimmed 
to a uniform size, say into blocks about eight inches square, would have 
made an array of rich ores far finer than any other display of copper in 
the Exposition. 

The duty of making an official report to the United States upon the 
copper of the Exhibition devolves upon Mr. II. Q. D’Aligny. of Lake 
Superior, a mining engineer and one of the United States Commission¬ 
ers, who had general direction and care of the mineral department of 
the United States in the Exposition since the opening. This report, 
with the others upon other portions of the Exposition, will be made this 
Winter, and will probably be printed in the Spring at Washington. 
Although the collection from Lake Superior was quite good, as respects 
variety, there were no very large masses, and no effort appears to have 
been made by the mining companies to send any. As a consequence, 
.Russia has the credit of sending the largest mass of native copper, 
weighing fifteen hundred and sixty pounds. It was sent by Nicolas 
and Alexander Popoff, from the distant Kirghiz Steppes in Siberia. In 
this mass the sharp eyesight of Descloizeaux, the distinguished French 
mineralogist, detected an isolated grain of native silver. This is exceed¬ 
ingly interesting to mineralogists, for it shows the same association of 
the metals in Siberia as at Lake Superior, and it indicates a similarity in 
the deposits and in their origin. It is gcnerall}' known to mineralogists 
in California, although it may not be a familiar fact, that at Lake Supe¬ 
rior large lumps of pure silver are found in the midst of masses of cop¬ 
per, the two metals being as perfectly united as if soldered, yet there is 
no mingling or alloy at the junction. It is now-generally conceded that 
these metals were deposited from solutions, under the influence of elec¬ 
trical currents. It is quite probable that native silver will be found with 
the copper of Alaska. I have seen very large masses of copper from 
that place, and there is every reason to believe that we will find there 
copper deposits fully equal to those of Lake Superior. 

MINES OF PRINCE DEMIDOFF, SIBERIA. 

Paul Demid off, of Siberia, sent a large collection of the products of 
his various mines of copper, iron, gold and platinum. Ilis property ex- 



/ 


35 


tends on both slopes of the Ural Mountains, and comprises over a 

1T p a J* ( a ] a ^ acres m bieral and forest lands, with a population 
o n ty-foui thousand persons. In this estate there are twenty-four 
coppei mines, all in operation, one hundred and seven gold veins, tmd 
twenty mines of platina. -Ihe copper mine of Medno-Roudiansk, dis¬ 
covered in eighteen hundred and fourteen, has yielded nearly a million 
o pounds of fine copper, and is worked to a depth of five hundred and 
seventy-four feet. This is the mine that affords the beautiful malachite. 
-Lhis mineral was discovered in eighteen hundred and forty in an enor¬ 
mous mass, and over seventy thousand pounds have been taken from it. 
The fragment sent to the Exhibition is five or six feet long and nearly 
three feet thick. It weighs four thousand six hundred and eighty-six 
pounds, and is valued at fifteen thousand dollars. The portions of this 
mass which have been polished reveal a very beautiful grain and a fine 
color. 

The Prince has twenty-four copper smelting furnaces on the estate, 
some of which smelt thirty-five tons of ore in twenty-four hours. 

MALACHITE FROM QUEENSLAND. 

Another large mass of malachite in the Exhibition was contributed 
from Queensland, by the Peak Downs Copper Company. This speci¬ 
men was nearly six feet long, three feet wide and one and a half thick. 
Its weight was not stated. It is rather dark colored and is not as solid 
as the specimens from Siberia. 

The famous Burra Burra mines of South Australia were not fully rep¬ 
resented; but there was an extremely interesting collection of the beau¬ 
tiful blue carbonate crystals associated with malachite. 

There were some very fine malachite vases, from one to three feet high, 
sent from different establishments in Russia, besides paper-weights, ink- 
stands and a variety of small ornamental objects, attractive in appearance 
and excellent in workmanship. 

The English and Australia Copper Company made a good exhibition 
of their products in bars and slabs of refined copper and ordinary black 
copper, for which they obtained a bronze medal. 

COPPER ORES OF CHILE. 

Chile made a very heavy exhibition of copper ores. They were sent 
in great masses and were piled together in magnificent confusion, with 
the figure of a miner in full costume standing at one end of the heap as 
if upon guard. These blocks were chiefly yellow copper ore and the 
variegated ore, with some gray copper and some masses of cupriferous 
silver ores. The copper mines are the most important and profitable in 
Chile and employ the greatest number of workmen, as the following 
facts will show. There are now in actual working or development 
one thousand six hundred and sixty-eight copper mines, two hundred and 
sixty-eight silver mines, six hundred and sixty-eight coal mines, and the v 
total number of miners is twenty-three thousand seven hundred and 
forty-three. In eighteen hundred and sixty-three there were three hun¬ 
dred and forty-seven high or cupola furnaces for the smelting or fusion 
of copper ores. The provinces richest in copper and silver ores are 
those of Atacama and of Serena in the north. They afford nearly 
three-quarters of the annual production of the country. The most im¬ 
portant mines, also, are not far from the coast, and are connected by 


36 


* 


railroad with some of the best ports, so that the facilities of transport 
and exportation are great and comparatively inexpensive. Copper and 
its ores are, however, not confined to any particular part of the State, 
but are very generally distributed in the interior along the Andes, fiom. 
Taleo in the south to Majellones in the north, or over a distance of nearly 
twelve degrees of latitude. 

The value of copper and its ores exported from Chile in eighteen hun¬ 
dred and sixty-five was over fourteen million dollars, most of which went 
to England. A large part of it is sent in the form of matte (concentra¬ 
ted ore by fusion), and some in the form of bars and ingots. 

DECADENCE OF THE ENGLISH MINES. 

The production of copper ores in Cornwall has been steadily diminish¬ 
ing and now many of the mines are closed, for thc} r can no longer be 
worked with profit while the price of copper is so low. the mines are 
in general very deep, and the ores very poor when compared with those 
of California, Chile and other parts of the world. 

There were very few exhibitions of these ores, or from the extensive 
copper smelting establishments of Great Britain. In one small collec¬ 
tion from Swansea I saw samples of our ores from Calaveras County and 
from the Colorado River. 

* 

COPPER SMELTING FURNACES. 

. 

There were several extremely interesting collections of copper in its 
various stages of progress by smelting from the ore up to the refined or 
rose copper for use. These collections show not only the metal in its 
various stages, but the fluxes, the scoriae and the fuel used. They were 
accompanied by carefully made models of the furnaces employed. The 
models were so constructed that they could be opened into two portions, 
and thus not only show the exterior but the interior construction. They 
are carefully made to a scale and are intended to serve as guides for the 
erection of large furnaces. They would be of great service to us in Cali¬ 
fornia, and I have regretted that the State has no institution provided 
with a fund which might be applied to the purchase of such models for 
the benefit of our mining population and the instruction of our young 
men w T ho are turning their attention to mining and metallurgy. 

MANSFIELD COPPER SCHISTS. 

The company occupied in the working of the Mansfield copper schists 
made a fine display of the products of the mines and of their works for 
the manufacture of sheet copper and copper boilers. The production of 
the mines in eighteen hundred and sixty-six was not less than twenty- 
one thousand seven hundred and twelve quintals of rosette copper, 
and twenty-four thousand five hundred and fifty-four quintals of refined 
* copper. Among the articles of manufactured copper there was a sheet 
nineteen feet nine inches long and nine feet wide, weighing four and a half 
pounds to the square foot. Another sheet was ten feet long and three 
feet wide, and a boiler or kettle eight and a half feet in diameter and 
three.feet deep. It is claimed that the works can turn out copper sheets 
ten feet wide and thirty feet long. The mines and works of this com¬ 
pany give occupation to five thousand five hundred men. 










37 


ZINC ORES AND MANUFACTURES. 

The principal exhibitions of this metal and its products were made by 
the Prussian and French companies, foremost of which is the Vielie- 
Montagne. This company is not exclusively occupied with zinc mines; 
it owns, also, deposits of lead, iron pyrites and coal. It has establish¬ 
ments in Germany, Belgium, France and Sweden. It emploj’s in all six 
thousand two hundred and twenty-three workmen, of whom two thou¬ 
sand six hundred and ninety-three are in Belgium. It produces seventy 
thousand tons of zinc ores annually, two thousand seven hundred tons 
of lead ores, two thousand tons of copper ores, and one hundred and ten 
thousand tons of coal. Its manufactures are : metallic zinc, thirty-two 
thousand tons; sheet zinc, twenty-five thousand tons—besides some 
eight hundred tons of zinc nails and small articles. The manufacture of 
zinc-white—-the white oxide of zinc—used for painting, has reached the 
figure of six thousand tons. The sales of the company per annum are, 
in round numbers, as follows : 


Manufactures. 

Tons. 

Value in francs. 

Metallic zinc. 

35,200 

5,800 

26,400,000 

4,327;500 

1,055,000 

Zinc white. 

Ores of lead, etc.,. 




The white zinc is made near Paris, by the combustion of the metal, 
and not directly from the ore, as by the American method. The speci¬ 
mens of ore exposed by the compan 3 ^ consist chiefly of blende—the sul- 
phuret of zinc—in large masses weighing from four hundred to eight 
hundred and one thousand pounds each. This company has a formidable 
competitor in the Silesian Zinc Company, of Breslau, which was estab¬ 
lished in eighteen hundred and fifty-three with a capital of five million 
Prussian thalers, since then increased to ten millions. One of the chief 
merits which this company claims for its zinc is that it is all made from 
calamine and not from blende, and is therefore supposed to be free from 
sulphur and to be stronger and more ductile. There was a very fine 
show of zinc plates, corrugated sheets for roofs, perforated plates, nails, 
wire and tubes. The largest plate was seventeen feet long and fifty-four 
inches wide, and three quarters of an inch thick, and it weighed two 
thousand and one hundred pounds. It could have been made twice as 
long and heavy, if the space had been allowed for it. The new Exchange 
building at Berlin is roofed with the corrugated zinc plates of this com¬ 
pany’s manufacture. 

AMERICAN ZINC. 

• , 

But in all the zinc exhibited by these two companies, and several 
others, there was none equal in quality to that produced by Wharton 
from the ores of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and exhibited by him in 
the American section. This zinc is nearly chemically pure, and may be 
used as such in analysis when testing for arsenic. 

The New Jersey Zinc Company, of New York, was represented there 
by samples of the ores from the mines of Sterling Hill and Franklin, 
New Jersey, and by the products of the works at Newark. These con- 














38 


• sisted chiefly of whitqzinc, dry and ground in oi] for paint, and of the 
hard white, manganiferous iron, generally known as “ Franklinite ” 
iron. This industry of zinc and iron combined has assumed large pro¬ 
portions and is very successful. It was founded chiefly through the 
exertions and enthusiasm of James L. Curtis, of the City of New York, 
who early had a correct appreciation of the importance and value of 
these ores and of zinc-oxide for paint as compared with poisonous lead, 
long before the incredulous public could be convinced. 

1 do not know of any extensive deposits of calamine in California. 
There are some localities of blende, but it is not probable that they can 
he worked to advantage for several years to come. 

NICKEL AND COBALT. 

Information in regard to the ores of these metals and the products 
manufactured from them is of some special interest to California, inas¬ 
much as we have a locality of such ores in abundance at or near the top 
of the Sierra Nevada. These were represented in the collection by the 
specimens given by Mr. Gaskill. 

There were numerous exhibitions of nickel and its ores from various 
and remote parts of the world. We found specimens from Chile, from 
Italy, Prussia, Sweden, Austria; also from New Jersey. From the last 
named locality Messrs. Wharton and Fleitman sent specimens of matte, 
containing about twelve per cent, of nickel, and some of the ordinary 
commercial nickel in small cubes, containing seventy-five per cent, of 
nickel and twenty-five per cent, of copper. This is produced from nick- 
eliferous pyrrhotine (magnetic pyrites) and the sulphuret of nickel; 
which last occurs in crusts at the Gap mine in Pennsylvania. The 
pyrites are said to contain only about three per cent of nickel. 

The Swedish nickel is produced at Klepwa. This ore is also a mix¬ 
ture of nickeliferous pyrrhotine with ordinary copper pyrites, and is 
showm in large masses It appears'to he taken from heavy beds. The 
best ore show^s by analysis only 2.75 per cent, of nickel and 0.10 of 
cobalt. The concentrated matte contains 53.74 per cent, of nickel and 
25.46 of copper. The small cubes contain sixty-six per cent, of nickel 
and thirty-four of copper. Another quality contains seventy-two per 
cent, of nickel. The establishment produces annually eighty-five thou¬ 
sand kilogrammes of concentrated nickel matte, containing from fifty- 
three to fifty-six per cent, of nickel and twenty-four to twenty-seven 
per cent, of copper, seven per cent, of iron and thirteen per cent, of 
sulphur. 

The price of the products varies according to the percentage of nickel. 
The ordinary matte, containing from fifty to fifty-six per cent, of nickel, 
is worth 6.70 francs the kilogramme of nickel. For example, one hun¬ 
dred kilogrammes of matte of fifty-four per cent, is worth about three 
hundred and sixty-two francs. For a sixty per cent, matte the price is 
about five hundred and four francs for one hundred kilogrammes. 

There is another establishment for the production of nickel at Sag- 
myra, Falun, and it was represented by specimens of ore and the mattes 
of various degrees of value. Some of the ore is a granular mixture of 
hornblende with magnetic and copper pyrites, very much like some 
mixtures in the United States. The best product of these works that 
was shown is a finely granular matte containing sixty-one per cent, of 
nickel, thirty-eight per cent, of copper and 0.80 per cent, of iron. 

A cobalt and nickel company in Hungary exports a crude product 










39 


containing forty-eight per cent, of nickel and cobalt, to England, to the 
extent of one million kilogrammes a year (about twenty-two hundred 
tons). 

A nickel and cobalt manufacturing establishment at Val-Benoit, near 
Liege, exhibited its products and sells them at the following prices: 


Per kilogramme. 


Francs. 


13.00 

11.50 

38.00 

25.00 

5.50 


Pure nickel. 

Ordinary melted nickel 
Black oxide of cobalt... 

Bose oxide of cobalt. 

Nickel bronze. 


In Chile the ores of cobalt are common from the mines of Yolcan, in 
the Province of Santiago, to the north of the Desert of Atacama. It 
accompanies the copper and the silver ores. At the mine of Buitre, gray 
cobalt ore is associated with mispickel, etc. Considerable quantities 
have been exported in the raw state, and the ore is washed in Europe. 
Danaite, mispickel containing cobalt, is found at San Jos6, Santiago. It 
is a fibrous variety and contains four per cent, of cobalt. Gray cobalt is 
found at the same locality; it contains twenty-one per cent, of cobalt. 


QUICKSILVER. 


The finest display of ores and the metal was made by the Old Almaden 
Mine of Spain. It sent twenty or thirty solid blocks of cinnabar 
more than a foot square. This ore is ol finer grain than that fiom New 
Almaden, but the color is not so brilliant. The Old Almaden ore looks 
more like the red oxide of iron. A large flask of native quicksilver 

accompanied the collection. # . . 

Algeria sent some very large masses of ore in which the cinnabar is 
associated with carbonate of lime, very much as in the California mines. 
This association appears to be as characteristic of cinnabar as that oi 

quartz with gold. . . A 

Most of the California localities were represented, but not oy large 

and brilliant specimens. 

Old Almaden Mine is worked in a very rude manner, and one ot the 
most ancient single-action steam engines is still in operation there rais¬ 
ing water. 


LEAD ORES. 
















One of the great curiosities of lead manufacture was shown in the 
French section by M. Letrange, being a coil of lead pipe twenty-eight 
hundred and fifty metres long (nearly ninety-five hundred feet) with a 
ca ibre of only one millimetre (about one twenty-seventh part of an 

IflCD )• 




0 


CHAPTER IV. 


GOLD, SILVER, PLATINUM AND THE RARE METALS. 


GOLD AND ITS ORES—CALIFORNIA. 

The principal mines of California were represented in the collection, 
as will be seen by reference to the appended catalogue. Although 
the collection was not as extensive and rich as it should have been, 
it was very interesting and instructive, and was highly commended 
for the 1 uniformity of the specimens in size and for the arrange¬ 
ment. The collection sent by Dr. Pigne was also very complete and 
well classified, and contained specimens from some mines not other¬ 
wise represented. Nearly every variety of gold-bearing quartz was 
shown and generally the different varieties from the same vein, to¬ 
gether with specimens of the wall rocks and of the surface or decom¬ 
posed ore. Most of the specimens were selected so as to show the aver¬ 
age character and appearance of the ore as raised and sent to the mills, 
and thus the display of free gold was not as striking and rich as some 
persons expected to see. In general, those who visited the California 
display looked for quantities of gold in nuggets and for trays full of the 
dust. This would have been very attractive to the crowd, and would 
have assured people of the already familiar fact—that gold abounds in 
California. The collection, therefore, was much more valuable and 
instructive than a great show of gold could have been, and it excited 
considerable interest and attention. The contrast between the California 
ores and those from, Colorado, arranged in a large case opposite, was 
very striking—the California specimens being nearly all quite white and 
showing but little sulphuret of iron, while the Colorado specimens were 
nearly all of them sulphuret of iron without quartz. 

The collection of gold crystals from California belonging to the Com¬ 
missioner was privately exhibited to the mineralogists and those who 
could best appreciate them, and they excited great admiration. There 
is nothing comparable with them, for variety and beauty, in the muse¬ 
ums and collections of Europe. 

The large crystalline mass of gold from the Spanish Dry Diggings, 


\ 


6 







( 


42 


California, which was exhibited for a time at San Francisco, in the win¬ 
dow of Hickok & Spear, and was photographed by Watkins, is now in 
Paris, the property of M. Fricot, formerly the owner of the Eureka mine 
at Grass Valley. Owing to the difficulty and expense of making this 
unique specimen perfectly safe in the Exposition, it was not entered 
there, but M. Fricot took pleasure in showing it freely at his house 
to those most interested. 

COLORADO GOLD ORES. 

» 

Mr. J. P. Whitney, of Boston, Commissioner from Colorado Territory, 
made a large display of the auriferous ores of Colorado. They occupied 
a long wall case, opposite to the central case in which the California col¬ 
lection was displayed, and the contrast between the two collections was 
very striking. The Colorado ores are nearly all sulphurets of iron, and 
quartz does not appear. They made a brilliant, sparkling display, and 
some of the specimens contained considerable quantities of gold visible 
to the unassisted eye, but in general the value is only to be known by 
assays. Mr. Whitney published a pamphlet, with maps descriptive of 
the Territory, in three languages, and distributed copies liberally. 
The collection was made much more interesting to the public by this 
means, and it attracted the attention of French capitalists to the Terri¬ 
tory. 

The principal mining in veins for gold has been in the counties of 
Gilpin and Clear Creek. The veins traverse granite, and are seldom 
over four or five feet thick. They appear on the surface by a discolora¬ 
tion of the soil and a spongy quartz. Considerable gold is extracted 
from these decomposed outcrops by sluicing. As th6 veins are opened 
and worked the decomposed ores are gradually replaced by solid sul¬ 
phurets of iron and copper, which in some few cases pay for working in 
the raw state, but in general require smelting. The process now adopted 
as the best, is to smelt the ores roughly so as to obtain a cupriferous 
matte, which holds the gold also. This matte is then sent across the 
Plains to the Atlantic Coast, and shipped to Swansea for the separation 
of the metals. This of course entails a great expense for transportation, 
but it is said to be profitable and several" furnaces have been erected dur¬ 
ing the past year. Some of the ores which yielded only ten or fifteen 
dollars per ton by stamping and pans in Colorado, yielded two hundred 
and three hundred dollars per ton by the methods at Swansea. Some of 
the matte contains thirty per cent, or more of copper, and as this metal 
is saved at Swansea, it alone more than pays the costs of transportation, 
and perhaps of separation. 

AUSTRALIA. 

The representation of the extensive gold regions of the Australian 
Continent were quite meagre and by no means worthy of the country. 
No organized effort appears to have been made, and the opportunity to 
show the nature of their ores and to make direct comparisons -between 
them and those of other gold regions has been lost. There were a few 
desultory specimens of quartz, and some of them closely resembled some 
of the specimens.in the California collection from Amador and Mariposa 
Counties. One specimen was interesting for the close association of gold 
and sulphuret of antimony, which has not been observed in California. 
There were several varieties of placer gold in trays and a few ingots, 
but there was no peculiar interest attaching to them. 


43 




A model of the celebrated “Welcome Nugget,” in plaster and o*ilt- 
was show n, and was almost as good to exhibit as the original, which was 
worth about fifty thousand dollars. It weighed a little over two thou¬ 
sand two hundred ounces. 

I he total gold product of "V ictoria was very effectively shown by a 
tall gilded pyramid, which represented the bulk of the gold which was 
taken out of the mines from eighteen hundred and fifty-one to eighteen 
hundred and sixty-six. This pyramid was ten feet square at the base, and 
sixty-two feet five and one half inches high; its bulk was two thousand 
and eighty-one.and one-half cubic feet. It represented the gross weight 
of thirty-six million five hundred and fourteen thousand three hundred 
and sixty-one ounces, or one thousand one hundred and seventeen tons, 
fifteen hundred-weight, two quarters and twenty-six pounds, and valued 
at .one hundred and forty-six million fifty-seven thousand four hun¬ 
dred and forty-four pounds sterling. The pyramid was made in sections 
placed one upon another. A framework was covered with boards and 
these covered with stout canvas, the surface of which w 7 as studded with 
bits of plaster and pebbles to represent the grains and lumps of gold. 
The gilding gave a uniform gold surface and the effect was very good. A 
similar pyramid could have been sent-from California at a very moderate 
cost. 

But the meagreness of the Australian display of ores was redeemed to 
a great extent by the publication of valuable statistics of the yield of 
the placers, and the number and the production of the quartz mines. 
There were also valuable pamphlets and prize essays upon Australian 
vegetation, agricultural capabilities and the climate. 

From the mineral statistics of Victoria for the year eighteen hundred 
and sixty-six, it appears that the number of quartz miners employed in 
the different districts was as follows: 


Districts. 

Quartz Miners. 

Ballarat. 

2,005 

2,941 

4.118 

2,292 

2,648 

874 

14,878 

Beech worth. 

Sandhurst.. . 

M arvhorou <rh. 

Castlemaine ... 

Ararat . . 

Tefal . . 



There were four hundred and eighty alluvial mining engines, with an 
aggregate horse power of nine thousand nine hundred and eighty-one, 
and five hundred and ten quartz mining engines, with an aggregate of 
nine thousand two hundred and thirty-one horsepower. The number 
of stamps was five thousand four hundred and thirty-seven. 

The following shows the number of tons of quartz crushed (as far as 
the exact returns had been received) and the average yield per ton. 
The price paid for treating quartz varied from four shillings to one 
pound ten shillings per ton : 


























44 


Mining Districts. 

Tons Crushed. 

Produce. 

Yield 

per ton. 


Ozs. 

Dwt. 

Dwt. 

Grs. 

Ballarat. 

238,503 1-2 
130,519 11-20 
244,807 1-2 
79,552 3-5 
124,374 1-2 
43,711 

58,157 

118,495 

118,743 

44,967 

85,662 

3 

4 

21.0 

Beech worth.. 

19 

18 

3.7 

Sandhurst. 

10 

9 

16.8 

Marvboroutrh. 

14 

11 

7.3 

Castlemaine... 

3 

13 

18.5 

Ararat. 

33,868 

18 

15 

11 ‘9 



Totals. 

861,408 13-20 

459,895 

7 

'10 

16.2 




This shows an average of ten pennyweights and sixteen grains per 
ton, or about ten dollars. Of the total gold exported, the ratio of the 
gold from, quartz veins to that from alluvial deposits was nearly as 
follows: 


Where obtained. 


Ounces. 


From quartz veins. 

From alluvial deposits 


521,017 

958,177 



Total 


1,479,194 


QUEENSLAND AND NOVA SCOTIA. 


There were several nuggets of gold from Queensland, the heaviest 
weighing eighty-four ounces. The quartz veins of Nova Scotia were 
represented by numerous specimens, some of them quite rich in coarse 
gold. The quartz is remarkable for its peculiar resinous and glassy 
lustre, and the gold is remarkably yellow and of superior fineness. 


BRAZIL. 

The interesting gold region of Brazil was represented by a few speci¬ 
mens, arranged with the diamonds, amethystine quartz, crystals, 
topazes and other interesting minerals of the country, in a glass ease! 
The principal mine now worked is the Morro Yelho, belonging to the 
St. John d’El Bey Company of England. This is probably the most 
productive and profitable gold mine in the world. The net paid up 
capital was one hundred and twenty-eight thousand four hundred 
pounds, and there has been paid out in dividends seven hundred and fifty- 
six thousand two hundred and forty-five pounds, besides an additional 
amount in improvements, which carry the profits up to one million 
seven thousand four hundred and ninety-four pounds, or about five mil¬ 
lion dollars. 
















































45 




The total value of the precious metals extracted from the mine has 
been two millions nine hundred and two thousand four hundred and 
eighty pounds, and the whole amount of mineral raised has been one 
million seven hundred and sixty-nine thousand and fifty tons, making 
the average yield per ton about half an ounce troy, or about eight dol¬ 
lars, the gold containing considerable silver, 

DISPLAY OF GOLD FROM OTHER COUNTRIES. 

The gold of Canada, Chile, Austria, .Japan ‘and other regions was 
shown, but. there was no striking peculiarity in the displays. There 
were some interesting specimens from Italy, and it appears that several 
mines are now being worked there successfully by English companies. 
Some beautiful and very coarse placer gold was shown from Roumania, 
but no information in regard to the deposits could be procured. 

In Russia, the gold fields have an enormous extent along the Altai 
Range, from the Urals eastward to the Amoor, and even to the Pacific 
Coast. According to the statistics published by the Russian Govern¬ 
ment to accompany the specimens exhibited at the Exhibition, the best 
washings are in the district of Olekminsk, of Bargousinsk, and of Tla- 
tooust; those of the Altai are next in order. The total value of the 
gold production, upon the price established by the Crown, which buys 
nearly all the product of the washings, is nineteen million three hun¬ 
dred and seven thousand one hundred and twelve roubles, about seventy- 
seven million two hundred and twenty-eight thousand four hundred and 
forty-eight francs annually. This is between fifteen and sixteen million 
of dollars, and it has been about the production since eighteen hundred 
and fifty. 

A very interesting exhibition of native gold was made by Messrs. 
Johnson, Matthey & Co , of London, large manufacturers of platinum 
apparatus for the use of chemists and chemical manufacturers. This 
firm filled two large glass cases in the English section with samples of 
its various products, both raw and manufactured. One case was devoted 
almost exclusively to a collection of native gold, and gold in ingots, in 
plate and in foil, together with an imposing array of bars of silver from 
various parts of the world, but particularly from Nevada and Chile. 

The collection of native gold contained samples from most of the gold- 
producing countries, and was formed chiefly of river or scale gold, and 
thus presented a great uniformity in its appearance. The samples were 
very neatly arranged in flat-topped show-bottles, and the exhibit was 
interesting chiefly for the number of localities represented. Most of 
the large ingots are only models; but having exactly the form and 
appearance of the originals, very few persons were aware of the fact. 

SILVER AND ORES OF SILVER. 

The silver ores from the region of Austin and Eastern Nevada, brought 
by Colonel Buel, formed the last addition to the mineral display of the 
United States. It was by far the most important contribution of silver ores 
in the Exhibition, and with the large masses of rich ore from the Poor- 
man Lode, Idaho, and the beautiful mass of dark-colored silver ore from 
Blind Springs, California, it made an array of which the silver miners 
of the Pacific Coast may well be proud, although they did not show 
specimens of half of the well known lodes. The Comstock Lode was 
not represented in Colonel Bucks collection, but fortunately there were 


46 


a few specimens in Dr. Pigne’s collection and in that sent by the writer, 
so that it was possible to show the character of the ores to those most 
interested, and to make some comparisons. There were many inquiries 
for specimens of the Comstock ores, and many Californians were sur¬ 
prised that it was not more extensively and appropriately represented. 
There was a great demand also for information and statistics, and the 
edition of the little book which Colonel Buel published upon Eastern 
Nevada was soon exhausted. This was prepared by Myron Angel, of 
Nevada, for the Committee, and was accompanied by a map showing the 
various mining districts around Austin and north and south of it. 

A suite of specimens of the ores from Eastern Nevada, sent to the Im¬ 
perial School of Mines, was assayed and yielded in silver at the rate of 
sixty-seven dollars to five thousand dollars per ton of silver and gold, as 
will be seen from the appended results. The Imperial Commission 
awarded a silver medal for this collection, and it will doubtless receive 
an appropriate notice in the official report to the French Government. 

The original and the translation of the following table of results of 
assaj'S are given as published and circulated at the Exposition : 










47 


EXTRAIT DES REGISTRES 


DU 


BUREAU ’D'ESSAI POUR LES SUBSTANCES MINE RALES. 


Paris, le l er aotit 1867. 

OXZE MINERAIS D ARGENT, PROTENANT d’AuSTIN-NeVADA, REMIS PAR M. GRUNER, INSPECTEUR 

GENERAL DES MINES. 

1. HighbridGe Mine.—C uivre gris avec cuivre sulfure et alterations de cuivre carbone vert 
et bleu, mouches de blende sur quartz ferrugineux. 

Argent OjO.*.. 4.535 

Or 0|0.0.000 

2 . Transylvania Mine.—C uivre sulfure avec cuivre carbonate vert et bleu ; mouches de 
blende et de galene cuivre gris et mispickel sur quartz ferrugineux. 

Argent 0|0. 1.405 

Or 0|0. 0.000 

3. Vanderbilt Mine.—S ylver Peak et Red Mountain Co, Etiquette Pocotillo.—Quartz im- 
pregne de cuivre gris avec alteration de cuivre carbonate vert et bleu. Fer oxyde hydrate jaune, 
mouches de galene et peut-etre argent sulfure. 

Argent 0j0. 2.370 

Or 0[0.0.003 

4. Fisherman Ledge.—B ullion Co Reveille, District.—Quartz impregn 6 d’alterations cuivre- 
uses, faibles mouches de galene et de blende. 

Argent 010.4.545 

Or 010. 0.0005 

5. Chase Mine.—Y ankee Blade.—Roche quartzuse grise iinpregn 6 d’argent sulfure, d’argent 
natif, d’argent gris, de cuivre gris avec cuivre pyriteux. 

Argent 010.6.250 

Or 0|0 .0.00025 

6 . Great Eastern Mine.—A rgent gris, argent rouge, peut- 6 tro argent, sulfur^, cuivre pyri- • 
teux en grains cristallins tres-petits, pyrite de fer, mouches de galene sur quartz. 

Argent 0 1 0. .9.280 

Or 0|0 .0.00250 

7. Florida Mine.—A rgent gris avec argent rouge sur quartz. 

Argent OjO. 11.170 

Or OjO. 0.0005 

8 . Timoke Mine.—A rgent gris avec argent rouge et cuivre gris sur quartz. 

Argent 010.14.100 

Or OjO.. 0.001 

9. Manhattan Mine.—N orth Star Mine.—Argent rouge, argent gris avec mouches de pyrite 
de ler sur quartz. 

Argent 010.4.710 

Or 0j0....'.0.0005 

10. Diana Mine.—C uivre gris avec pyrite de fer et de cuivre, mouches de galene sur quartz 
avec un peu de feldspath rose. 

Argent OjO.6.930 

Or 0|0. 0.000 

11. Fairmount Mine.—T win River.—Galene a facettes curvilignes, cuivre gris, mispickel, 
mouches de blende sur quartz. 

Argent OjO...0.180 

Or 0j0.....0.00025 

L’Ing 6 nieur en Chef des Mines 

Directeur du Bureau des Essais, 

L.-E. RIVOT. 































48 


EXTRACT FROM THE REGISTER 


OP THE 


BUREAU OF ASSAY OF MINERALS. 


Paris, August 1st, 1S67. 

Eleven specimens op silver ore coming from Austin, Nevada, U.*S., received from Mr. j 
Gruner, Inspector-General of the Mines of France. 

1. IIiGnBRiDGE Mine. —Gray copper with sulphuret of copper and altered blue and green car¬ 
bonate of copper, speckled with blende on ferruginous quartz. 

Assay of silver per ton of 2,000 lbs.$1,709.68 

2. Transylvania Mine. —Sulphuret of copper with blue and green carbonate of copper and 
mispickel on ferruginous quartz. 

Assay in silver per ton of 2,000 lbs.$2,794.50 

3. Vanderbilt Mine.— Silver Peak and Red Mountain.—Quartz, impregnated with gray cop¬ 
per, with altered green and blue, carbonate of copper, yellow' hydrated oxide of iron, specks of 
galena and perhaps sulphuret of silver. 

Assay in silver per tou of 2,000 lbs.$687.30 

4. Fisherman Ledge. —Bullion Company, Reveille District.—Quartz, impregnated with altered 
copper, small specks of galena and blende. 

Assay in silver per ton of 2,000 lbs.$1,713.46 

5. Chase Mine. —Yankee Blade.—Gray quartz rock, impregnated with sulphuret of silver, 
native silver, gray silver and gray copper, with copper pyrites. 

Assay in silver per ton of 2,000 lbs.$2,356.50 

6. Great Eastern Mine. —Gray silver, ruby silver, perhaps sulphuret of silver, gray copper, 
copper pyrites in very small crystalline grains, iron pyrites, specks of galena on quartz. 

Assay in silver per ton of 2,000 tbs. .$3,498.50 

7. Florida Mine.—G ray silver, with ruby silver and gray copper on quartz. 

Assay in silver per ton of 2,000 lbs.$4,211.09 

8. Timoke Mine. —Gray silver, with ruby silver and gray copper on quartz. 

Assay in silver per ton of 2,000 lbs.$5,349.63 

9. Manhattan Mine. —North Star Mine.—Ruby silver, gray silver, with specks of iron pyrites 
on quartz. 

Assay in silver per ton of 2,000 lbs..$1,365.90 

10. Diana Mine. —Gray copper with iron and copper pyrites, specks of galena on quartz, with 
a little rose-colored feldspar. 

Assay in silver per ton of 2,000 lbs.$2,612.61 

11. Fairmount Mine. —Twin River.—Galena with curvelinear faces, gray copper, mispickel, 
specks of blende on quartz. 

Assay in silver per ton of 2,000 lbs.$67.86 

% 

Chief Engineer of Mines and 

Director of Bureau of Assay, 

L.-E. RIVOT. 



















49 


IDAHO—THE POORMAN ORE. 

The New York company which now owns and works the Poorman 
lode sent over in good season several very large and wonderfully rich 
masses of the ore. One of them weighed about two hundred pounds, 
and consisted in great part of red silver ore. It has occupied the top of 
a gieat pile of ores from the United States, and for a long time was 
hardly noticed by even experts as an object of any great consequence. 
It was only necessary, however, to look closely to see the massive ruby 
silver and crusts of chloride. The Jury awarded a gold medal to Mr. 
Walbridge for this display. 

THE BLIND SPRING ORE. 

The very fine specimen sent by Dr. Harkness and Dr. Frey, of Sacra¬ 
mento, attracted some attention from the mineralogists by reason of its 
richness in silver, and because it contains some of the compound called 
Partzite, and supposed to be a new mineral. It was the general opin¬ 
ion, how 7 ever, that the mineral is not sufficiently well characterized to 
be regarded as a distinct species. It is probably a mixture of other 
minerals, and has not a constant composition. 

KONSBERG SILVER MINES, NORWAY. 

As regards beauty of specimens and mineralogical interest, there was 
nothing so fine as the exhibit made by the Norwegian Government of 
the products of the Ivonsberg mines. A glass case was filled with the 
most extraordinary crystallizations of native silver and of the sulphuret. 
This silver is remarkably white and contains a little quicksilver naturally 
alloyed with it. This collection was a very complete one, as regards the 
associate minerals and rocks, and was accompanied by several colored 
sections of the veins and galleries of the mine. 

CHILE SILVER MINES. 

There was a very important* collection of the silver ores of Chile. 
Some specimens of the ruby silver in crystals from Chanarcillo were 
remarkably fine. There were also some specimens of the rare com¬ 
pounds of silver, such as amalgam crystals, the chloro-bromide of silver, 
and a new mineral (a double iodide of silver and of mercury) called 
tocornalite , by M. Domeyko, Professor in the School of Mines at Santiago, 
who sent a short memoir with the collection. According to this author, 
the silver veins of Chile, such as those of Tres Puntas, Chanarcillo, Agua 
Amarga, are found in an argillaceous limestone formation, often fossilif- 
erous, and belonging to the Jurassic epoch. These mines are further 
from the coast than the rich copper deposits. 

The exportations of silver from Chile for the last five years have aver¬ 
aged about thirty-three thousand and eighty-six kilogrammes, exclusive 
of the metal contained in the mattes of argentiferous copper and the 
unworked ores. The silver coinage in eighteen hundred and sixty-six 
amounted to nine hundred and seventy-three thousand four hundred and 
twenty-eight dollars, in pieces of fifty, twenty, ten and five centimes. An 
interesting collection of ores illustrated the process of treatment of 
argentiferous copper ores by fusion to obtain a rich matte for exporta- 

7 





50 


tion. These mattes contain fifty-six per cent, of copper and two hun¬ 
dred and forty-one thousandths of silver. The scoriae which result from 
the smelting ordinarily retain two thousandths of copper and five ten- 
thousandths of silver. 

SILVER MINES OF FREIBERG, SAXONY. 

The Freiberg mining region was well represented in the Exposition 
by a careful selection of the ores of the different formations, accompa¬ 
nied by their products. As the writer visited these mines; he is able to 
present some of the following details from personal observation : 

6 There is a tradition, generally believed, that the veins of Freiberg 
were discovered by a teamster named Goslar, in the twelfth century. 
This recalls at once the recollection of the discovery of the Austin silver 
mines by the rider of the Pony Express, and it is singular that the ores 
of Austin and those of Freiberg are in some respects similar. In eigh¬ 
teen hundred and twenty-five, the now venerable Professor Breithaupt 
made a calculation which showed that in six hundred and forty years 
the Freiberg mines had produced eighty-two thousand quintals of silver, 
worth two hundred and forty million of thalers. 

Freiberg is only one of the mining centres of Saxony. The ore bear¬ 
ing or metalliferous region is divided into four mining districts, as fol¬ 
lows: Altcnberg, thirty-one mines; Freiberg, ninety-eight; Marienberg, 
forty-eight; Schwarzenberg, one hundred and forty-six. This shows a 
total of three hundred and twenty-three mines in the four districts. Of 
these mines only twentj/ are worked by the Government; the others are 
explored by companies and private capital. The total number of miners 
in the district is set down in the Government reports as ten thousand 
one hundred and twenty-two, and the number of smelters or laborers at 
the reduction works as one thousand one hundred and seventy-five. 

In the year eighteen hundred and sixty-five the amount of first class 
ore delivered at the Freiberg smelting works was about thirty-three 
thousand six hundred and fourteen tons, worth one million, seventeen 
thousand three hundred and five dollars (in its raw state), or thirty dol¬ 
lars a ton. These ores when worked gave products to the value of about 
two million dollars. The principal products, and in the order of their 
value, are silver, lead and its oxides, sulphate of copper, sulphuric acid, 
gold, zinc, nickel, bismuth and arsenic. The amounts are given in round 
numbers, on account of the difficulty in calculating the different German 
weights and values. 

The products of the Freiberg smelting works are derived not only 
from the ores of Freiberg, but from those of other districts, and also 
from distant places. Some ores are received there from South America 
and Mexico; those from the latter places being chiefly antimonial ores, 
and sent as ballast at a small cost for freight. The whole quantity of 
foreign ores is, however, inconsiderable, compared with those of the 
region. 

There are three or more groups or systems of veins, having different 
directions and intersections at various angles. A copy of the official 
map of the region shows veins running parallel with each other and in 
close proximity. They are regarded as separate, though usually worked 
under one company or administration. They are quite different from our 
Comstock lode, being in general quite narrow compared with it, and 
without such remarkably well formed selvages or clay walls. I told one 




51 


of the Professors of the costly litigation we had had in Nevada upon the 
question of one or more ledges, and he remarked that formerly there had 
been similar and protracted disputes in Freiberg, until finding it impos¬ 
sible to settle the question satisfactorily, the laws had been changed so 

as to make the claims square; in other words, they adopted the plan of 
square locations. 1 

. mining laws require the finder of a vein to obtain a permit to work 
it from the Government, and to have it recorded in the Government 
office.. Each claim is divided into one hundred and twenty-four shares, 
of which one belongs to the discoverer, one to the owner of the land’, 
and two to the town. These four shares are unassessable, so that the 
wdiole expense of development or improvement falls upon the outside 
holders. Owners of stock have the option of giving up their shares to 
avoid the payment of an assessment. In this case the shares fall into 
the hands of the Mining Office, and are sold to the highest bidder, pref¬ 
erence usually being given to the old stockholders. The u freeze out 
game ” seems to have be.en practiced here for a long time, for the large 
and wealthy companies gradually absorb the smaller ones. Of all these 
mines there are only six that pay dividends regularly, while there are 
several that just make expenses and continue to develop without assess¬ 
ing. There is one mine that regularly assesses the stockholders twenty- 
five dollars per share' quarterly. The Himmelfahrt mine and the Him- 
melfurst are two of the most extensive in the vicinity of Freiberg. The 
former paid seven hundred thalers per share last year, and the shares 
now command from eight thousand dollars to ten thousand dollars each; 
forty years ago they could have been bought for eleven cents a share. 
The Himmelfahrt paid six thalers a share last }mar. The mines are now 
producing better than they have for years previously. It is said on good 
authority that the establishments here, including the reduction works, 
give in the aggregate a profit of eight to ten per cent, per annum upon 
the investment. 

The Himmelfahrt is one of the most extensive and deepest of the 
mines. Its shafts are just outside of the old walls of the city, and they 
have been carried to the depth of nearly two thousand feet. The 
length of the galleries is reckoned in miles, and portions of them extend 
under the town. They form a complete labyrinth, and many are so 
little frequented that a stranger might easily get lost and perish, per¬ 
haps, of starvation, before finding an exit. 

It was very interesting to walk through the ancient workings, where 
the galleries had been cut by pick and gad alone, without the aid of 
gunpowder. They are very narrow, but are high, with the top roundly 
arched, and all very smoothly cut. They reminded me at once of the 
galleries in the Japanese mines, cut in a similar manner. One of these 
galleries led to a place where-two tablets, carved out of the solid walls, 
bear the date of seventeen hundred and* sixty-seven and inscriptions 
noting the fact that powder was first used in the mine near that spot, 
To descend to the depth of two thousand feet, and ascend, is no small 
journey, and exhausts a great part of a miner’s strength. To avoid 
this the deep shafts are fitted with the well-known man machine, or 
fahrkunst , by which the trip can be accomplished with comparatively 
little fatigue. In this mine the man machine and pumps are operated 
by water wheels about thirty feet in diameter, which are placed in large 
chambers excavated far below the surface. The water is brought in by 
a gallery, and after passing over the wheels escapes by the adit. The 
hoisting is performed by the same power, transmitted by wire cable to 


52 



the surface. Steam is used at other shafts. The engines are generally 
horizontal, provided with link motion, and are connected with the bob¬ 
bin shaft by gearing. The friction band operates upon the periphery 
of the flywheel, which is better than our system. Their bobbins and 
pulleys at the head of the shaft are generally of good size—not less 
than eight or ten feet in diameter—and are double, so that while one 
cage or skip is descending the other is ascending. Bound iron cable is 
used exclusively. No person is allowed to ascend or descend in the skip 
or car. 

Most of the veins are without gouge or selvage, and all the ore must 
be blasted out. I was surprised at the small size and lightness of the 
German drills. A California miner would hardly consent to use them 
after handling our octagonal steel drills. 

The ores of .Freiburg are taken to smelting works situated in a deep 
basin-like valley, upon the Mulde, where there are hundreds of furnaces 
in constant operation. The ores which were formerly treated by amal¬ 
gamation in barrels are now treated b}^ fire, and the silver is gradually 
concentrated into metallic lead, from which it is separated by Patti- 
mon’s process. Almost all the constituents of the ores are utilized. 
Amongst them are lead, zinc, copper, silver, gold, arsenic, cobalt, sul¬ 
phur, sulphuric acid, sulphate of copper, orpiment and realgar. 

There are about forty students in the Academy from the United States, 
including six from California, or in all about half of the total number of 
students. 

The country rock of the Freiberg veins is a hard tough gneiss-—in 
fact, the typical gneiss—which is evidently a metamorphosed sedimen¬ 
tary formation, and is in many places nearl} T horizontal. The veins cut 
across it, and are, for the most part, nearly vertical. They make very 
little show at the surface, for there is no heavy gangue or veinstone of 
quartz, as with most of our mineral veins. The outcrops are generally 
very rusty and red, and thus indicate at once the pyritiferous character 
of the ores below. The ore is generally a mixture of iron and copper 
pyrites, with arsenical pyrites, galena, blende, and here and there the 
silver sulphurets. Occasionally very beautiful crystallizations of the 
silver minerals are found, and the cabinet of the Mining Academy is 
enriched by them. It contains a magnificent collection of these ores 
and crystals taken from the different veins for one hundred years past. 
Now and then considerable quantities of native silver are found. In four 
years, from eighteen hundred and fifty-seven to eighteen hundred and 
sixty-one, eight thousand three hundred pounds of this metal were taken 
out of the Himmelfurst mine, most of it in large plates, one of which 
weighed four hundred pounds. 

A mine called the Chur Prinz, a few miles from Freiberg, belongs to 
the Government, and is kept as a sort of experimental mine, where new 
inventions and processes are tVied at the public expense. Two of Blake's 
ore breakers are used here to prepare the ore for the jigs and other con¬ 
centrators. The ore passes from one breaker to the other, the last being 
adjusted to crush fine. 

The stamping mills are very rude and do not compare favorably with 
ours for efficiency and economy of power. The total number of stamps 
about Freiberg is six hundred and fifty-six; of these five hundred and 
seven are dry stamps, and one hundred and forty-nine wet. 

Water is raised from the deep mines, not by water power alone, but 
also by Cornish steam engines at some places, and by the column of 
water, or “ water-pressure engines" in others. Some of these latter are 


% 


53 


been Cofetted' 1 ^th?'^^ the % Tw0 lon S tunnels have 

i 1 ?o"res, J If . d t ra, . n t? e °, f tiese mine3 - 0n e °f them is in 

pro less. It will be about eight miles long, and will reauire rnunv von-q 

me^nTo'fShafts ° T°h' ^ ' V01 ' kc , d , u P on at several different pofnts ‘by 

md is intended tPh® 0tbe f tU "" el haS been ^eyed and talked about, 
and is intended to .be no less than twenty-eight miles lono- but the 

r w X£ c ° nstruct u bas not been obtained, and it is not probable that 
u will ever be commenced. The developments made by the other tunnel 
in the gi ound outside of the belt of the veins have not been of a nature 
to encourage a hope that the lower tunnel would cut or discover new 
veins. in mg. eighteen hundred and sixty-five, the whole number of 
men employed m the tunnel was two hundred and twenty, and the costs 
lor the year was seventy-eight thousand five hundred and ninety-nine 

A few facts upon the rate of wages in Saxon mines may be interesting 
to California miners : ° 


For eight hours work a miner receives about twenty cents (gold) • an 
under superintendent thirty to thirty-seven cents, and a superintendent 
about four hundred dollars a year. Boys receive from ten to fifteen 
cents, and carpenters about the same. One tenth part of the wao-es is 
retained for a common fund devoted to the support of indigent miners. 

There is a feature in a German miner’s life which will seem very odd 
to most Californians. Every day before the men enter the mine they 
meet in a chapel at the mouth of the shaft and have a short religious 
service. Passages of Scripture and prayers are read, psalms are sung, 
in which they all join. After this the roll is called by the sub-superin¬ 
tendent, and the orders for the shift are given. The miners appear to 
enjoy good health, and to be contented and happy. They lead a quiet 
and simple life, and are full of good will towards others. This is ex¬ 
pressed in the “ Gluckauf” or “ luck to you,” with which you are greeted 
on coming or going. * 

o o & 


SILVER LEAD ORES. 


The largest mass of silver in the Exhibition was in the French depart¬ 
ment, and was extracted from argentiferous lead ores by one of the 
silver lead companies of Pontgibaud. It is just as it came from the 
cupel, and is nearly one yard in breadth, and is valued at twenty-seven 
thousand dollars. It is accompanied by interesting samples of the ores 
of lead, rough and dressed, and the products of the smelting and cupel- 
lation. These are all tastefully arranged in a large glass case, together 
with large pigs of commercial lead and samples of pipe and sheets. The 
following is the amount of lead and of silver in several of the ores which 
are treated at this establishment, in one thousand parts : 


Pzaual— 
Lead 
Silver 


620. 

2.450 


Poure— 
Lead., 
Silver 


287.50 

1.087 












54 


Lagrange— 
Lead.... 
Silver... 

Brou sse— 
Lead ... 
Silver... 


272.50 

1.087 

730. 

3.60 


The rich lead in bars contains 0.017 of silver, and the working lead 
3.857. 

The lead mines of Argentiere exhibited a large mass of granular galena 
and calcareous gangue, containing, of lead forty-three per cent.; and of 
silver, one hundred and forty-four grammes per one hundred kilogrammes 
of ore—four hundred and thirty-five grammes per one hundred kilo¬ 
grammes of lead. 

The following assays show the average quality of the ores : 


First quality— 

Lead . 

.45 per cent. 

Silver. . 

200 grammes per 100 kilogrammes of ore. 
444 grammes per 100 kilogrammes of lead. 

Second quality— 

Lead. 

Silver. 

174 grammes per 100 kilogrammes of ore. 
434 grammes per 100 kilogrammes of lead. 

Third quality— 

Lead... 

Silver. 

163 grammes per 100 kilogrammes of ore. 
430 grammes per 100 kilogrammes of lead. 


The argentiferous lead ores of Gennamari and Ingurtosu, Sardinia, 
were also exhibited in the French section. The ore is in large masses 
and is rather fibrous in structure, but breaks with a brilliant sparkling 
fracture. Some specimens, however, are compact and granular. 

These ores assay as follows: 


Ores. 

To 100 kilogrammes of ore. 

a —Ores of Gennamari— 


Lead. 

/ fl t.r» SI Kilnorn m m na 

Silver.. 


b —Ores of Ingurtosu— 


Lead ... 

7n tn SI Irilnrrvn m m aq 

Silver. 








































55 


The Talisker Silver Lead Company of South Australia made an inter¬ 
esting exhibit of the ores and of the bars of lead produced from them. 

Some very rich specimens of argentiferous lead ores were shown in 
the collection from Colorado. The veins are said to be large and numer¬ 
ous, and it is reported that other discoveries of rich silver ores have been 
made during the past Summer. * 

PLATINUM AND MANUFACTURES FROM IT. 

Numerous masses of native platinum were shown in the Russian sec¬ 
tion from the washings on the estate of Prince Demidoff, in Siberia. 
One of these masses weighed thirteen pounds. The smaller nuggets 
were quite magnetic, and attracted iron filings like loadstone. 

The most attractive display of this metal, and probably the finest ever 
made, was by the firm of Johnson, Matthey & Co of London, who are 
the most extensive and expert manufacturers of articles in platinum for 
the use of chemists and others. The actual value of the metals and 
articles manufactured by them, in two cases, was nearly $100,000. The 
attention was first attracted by the enormous size of the platinum boil¬ 
ers used for the concentration of sulphuric acid. These are in the form 
of stills, nearly four feet in diameter and are sufficiently capacious to 
concentrate eight tons of acid a day. They show many improvements 
over old patterns; but what is most remarkable is, that .they are made 
^without joints, soldered with gold as usual. They may be considered as 
formed of one piece of metal, and as specimens of autogenous soldering 
they are remarkably fine and interesting. The price of a still of the 
capacity of five tons a day is four thousand francs, and of one that can 
concentrate eight tons, sixty-two thousand five hundred francs. 

There was a great variety of smaller platinum vessels, such as evapo¬ 
rating dishes, crucibles, small stills for fluoric acid, siphons, tubes and 
alembics, all of them showing great skill in forging and working the 
metal. 

Alongside of these vessels there were several large ingots of the metal 
chemically pure, and intended for the fabrication of sulphuric acid stills. 

These ingots are about as large as two bricks placed side by side, and 
they were melted under the oxydiydrogen blow-pipe, according to the 
method of St. Claire Deville and Debray. A few irregular projections 
on these masses show how perfectly fluid the metal was—so much so as to 
penetrate into every small cavity of the mould. There were but few of 
the many persons that looked upon those triumphs of science that knew 
that even a small wire of the same metal cannot be melted in the hottest- 
forge fire. Each of these ingots is valued at thirteen hundred francs. 
In addition to these ingots there was a model of the great ingot melted 
for the Exhibition of eighteen hundred and sixty-two. This ingot was 
the largest ever made and weighed one hundred kilogrammes, and was 
valued at eighty-five thousand francs. It is not probable that another 
ingot of equal size will be produced. The model was therefore of pecu¬ 
liar interest and value. 


APPARATUS FOR ASSAYERS. 

A mono* the great variety of objects, there was an apparatus in platina 
for facilitating gold assays. This, if not already in use by our assayers, 
should interest some of our establishments in San Irancisco, for it is 


56 


claimed to be a great improvement upon old methods and to give more 
exact results. 

It consists of two shallow kettles of platinum about a foot across the 
top, set in holes like those of the top of a stove, so that heat from a gas 
lamp or stove can he applied below. The nitric acid for dissolving the 
silver out of the assays is placed in the kettles. A frame of platina, made 
to fit the kettles, is divided into two hundred or more little partitions, 
into each of which a small platinum cup is placed. These cups are not 
larger than a child’s thimble, and are movable. The bottom of each is 
pierced with tine slits at right angles, so that the acid can enter when 
the} T arc lowered with the frame into the kettle, and so that it may drain 
out when the frame is raised. It will be seen that the number of assa} T s 
is limited only by the number of the cups. No glass is used. By means 
of this apparatus the pouring off of acid and the separate washing of 
each assay is avoided. It has been in use for five years in the laboratory 
of the firm with complete success. The whole apparatus with two ket¬ 
tles is about two feet long and thirteen inches wide. A porcelain hood 
covers the kettles and discharges the distilled acid into a vessel at one 
side. 

MAGNESIUM. 


The same firm exhibited an obelisk of pure magnesium, weighing five 
kilogrammes, or eleven pounds. The metal was shown, also, in large 
quantities in the shape of foil for batteries, in ribbons and wires of vari¬ 
ous sizes. In another part of the Exposition a little apparatus was 
shown containing a coil of magnesium wire w hich may be,fed out regularly 
as fast as it burns. The whole is not larger than a watch, and may be 
carried in the pocket in readiness for the production of a light almost 
equal to that of the sun. This would be very useful in caves and in the 
examination of the dark galleries and chambers of mines, but the direct 
light should of course be carefully kept from the eye. 

/ m 

IRIDIUM, OSMIUM AND OTHER RARE METALS. 


The exhibition of the rare metals was the most complete ever witnessed, 
and rejoiced the heart of a chemist, who perhaps had never before seen 
more than a grain or two of some which were there shown in massive 
ingots. A bar of iridium, for example, two or three inches long! This 
was the second which had ever been melted and cast, and was made up of 
small grains not much larger than the tips of a gold pen. This metal is 
.so hard that diamond dust must be used to cut it; and the question here 
arises whether in this solid form we may not use it for tools by which to 
cut hardened steel, and turn and fashion the hardest rocks. 

The bar of osmium which was near by—a metal generally found 
in # nature in close association with iridium—presented a totally different 
appearance, for it looked like a mass of coke. 

.Ruthenium is the only one of these rare elements which was not shown 
in great.quantity. There were a few grains as large as peas. But any 
disappointment in this case was more than compensated by the sight of 
a goodly quantity of boron and silicon, and of a remarkable series of 
the various metals cast in cylinders of equal diameter, but each specimen 
having the same weight (one kilogramme, or about two pounds each). 
-The lesult was that the cylinders had very unequal lengths, and thus ex¬ 
hibited in a very striking manner the difference in the specific weights of 
the metals. The series contained gold, silver, platinum, iridium, rhodium, 




57 


palladium, lead, bismuth, copper, cadmium, cobalt, nickel, iron, antimony, 
zinc, magnesium, aluminum, thallium, sodium, potassium, osmium (not 
melted) and mercury. 

Each cylinder was about one inch in diameter. Quicksilver, which was 
in a melted state at our ordinary temperatures, and the metals which 
oxidize rapidl}" in the air, were confined in glass. The other specimens 
were just as. they came from the mould. 

The platinum cylinder was about four inches long; the quicksilver about 
seven inches, and the others elongated by a very regular gradation up to 
aluminum, which towered two feet above the preceding, and was in its turn 
overtopped by the magnesium cylinder nearly four feet long. Thus, at 
one end of the series, a bar of metal four feet long would just counter¬ 
poise the bar of platinum, only seven inches long, at the other end. 

In the collection sent from the metallurgical works of Freiberg, Saxony, 
there was an ingot of the new metal, indium—a great novelty—which was 
prepared by Professor Eichter at great cost. 

* 

8 











CHAPTER V. 


USEFUL MINERALS, MATERIALS FOR PORCELAIN, ORNA¬ 
MENTAL STONES AND GEMS. 


EMERY. 

The Chester Iron Company of Massachusetts sent a splendid illus¬ 
trative series of the emery and the accompanying minerals from the 
recently-discovered bed in Chester. Massachusetts. This, it will be 
remembered, was discovered by Dr. Jackson, of Boston, in some samples 
of magnetic iron ores sent to him for assay. This was one of the most 
striking examples of the direct practical value of mineralogy as a 
science. The mineralogical association of emery had been previously 
studied with much care by Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, and he had observed 
that the foliated white mineral which he called emc.ryllte was an almost 
constant companion of emery or corundum. The recognition of this 
mineral in the Chester specimens caused Dr. Jackson to indicate the 
existence of emery at that locality to the company, and the result was 
the opening of a deposit of great size and of superior quality. The 
Jury recognized this discovery by awarding a medal to Dr. Jackson, 
although he was not a participator in the display. 

GRArillTE. 

The number of specimens of graphite from various parts of the world 
was very great, and was exceeded only by the display of the various 
articles into which this mineral enters as the chief constituent—such as 
crucibles, melting pots, pans, furnace linings, etc. 

The great attractive and brilliant display of the raw material was 
made by M. Alibert, who sent a large quantity of the mineral in its raw 
state from Mount Batougal, near Irkoutsk, in Siberia. This graphite 
is remarkable for its density, freedom from grit, for its blackness, and 
for a peculiar fibrous structure which shows upon the surface of the 
block like the grain of split wood. This structure has already been 
noted by the celebrated Russian mineralogist, General Kokscharof, in 
his Mineralogy of Russia. Most of the masses have a prismatic form, 






- —_ _ 







59 


and are from one to three feet long and are only a few inches in diam¬ 
eter, looking as if they had been split out like wood. It is very dense 
and homogeneous, and can be sawed and cut into any desired shape, 
and will bear cutting into long pencil-like masses with very sharp and 
firm points, and it is therefore well adapted for pencils, for which it is 
beginning to be largely used. There were some specimens which 
exhibit a peculiar pisolitic or nodular structure, and others which resem¬ 
ble the fibrous form of amianthus or satin-spar. It appears to be found 
in highly metamorphosed hornblendie rocks. 

GRAPHITE IN BOHEMIA. 

A very important exhibit of graphite in its raw and prepared state 
was made by the proprietors of deposits in Bohemia, which annually 
furnish large quantities of a very superior article for pencils, steel man¬ 
ufacture, the galvanoplastic art, and for various other purposes. 

Mr. Victor Norback, who has made a special study of the industry of 
graphite, and has long been engaged in it, has kindly given me much 
information, which is presented in the following summary: 

The principal localities are in Southern Bohemia, near Budweis. The 
graphite occurs there in great quantities, inclosed in gneiss and granite, 
together with limestone, which last is a constant associate. The graphite 
is in shistose layers, which vary from one inch to ten or twenty feet in 
width. The finest qualities are found in the middle, and are not over six 
inches thick. The different layers of graphite are quite distinct and 
parallel, and five or more are recognized. 

These deposits have been worked for sixty years, and it is said that 
the manufacture of lead pencils would not have reached the present de¬ 
gree of perfection without the graphite of these mines. The pencil- 
makers of Bavaria, and the celebrated establishments of Faber and of 
Kehback use this graphite exclusively. 

The clean masses of this Bohemian graphite have the following com¬ 
position : 


Ingredients. 


Per cent. 


Carbon . 

Oxide of iron, limestone, magnesia, alkalies, sulphur and water 


72.40 

17.60 


The finest portions give over eighty per cent, carbon. At the begin¬ 
ning of this century the production was not important, but it has been 
steadily and rapidly increasing, as the following figures show. The 
production was, at different periods, as follows : 


* 










60 


Years. 


1823 

1833 

1843 

1853 

1863 



The following table shows the amount produced (in hundred weights), 
of different qualities, for four years, from eighteen hundred and fifty- 
seven to eighteen hundred and sixty, inclusive: 


Location and Company. 

1857. 

1858. 

1859. 

1860. 

Mine of the Duke of Schwartzenberg, in 
Schwartzenbach. 

Mines of Eggert & Company, in Mugrau... - 

Mines of the peasants, Mugrau.• 

fftnVipn mirp 

' 

‘ 

' 

10,920 

3,610 

17,843 

376 

1,220 

1,994 

931 

880 

955 

35 

9,681 

1,311 

23,825 

620 

951 

2,164 

792 

728 

844 

7,758 

7,051 

31,147 

292 

633 

717 

814 

1,253 

1,631 

10,374 

4,484 

21,683 

18 

708 

2,381 

708 

1,292 

1,809 

Menzel and Barthol, Stuben. 

160 

200 

950 

TC ran man.4._ 

20 

SO 



Anton ITofhanpir, in Wottorn. 


25 

Bist.P.1 At, Onmnnnv- in kranman__ 




2,400 






Totals. 


38,784 

41,156 

51,496 

46,832 



Quality. 


I 

II 

III 

I 

II 

III 

I 

II 

III 

III 

III 

III 

III 

III 


The value of the total production at the present time is estimated at 
two hundred and fifty thousand dollars annuall} 7 . The establishment of 
Krupp, at Essen, consumes twenty thousand hundred-weight annually. 
The mines of the -Duke of Schwartzenberg are now of great extent. 
They produced in eighteen hundred and sixty-six: 


Quality. 

Austrian cwts. 

First. 

10,000 
4 000 

Second. 

Third. 

60 000 

Refined (washed). 

36,000 


Total. 

110,000 



There are four steam engines, with an aggregate of one hundred and 
twenty-two-horse power, and two hundred and fifty men are employed. 








































































61 


GRAPHITE OE TUOLUMNE, CALIFORNIA. 

The samples of California graphite compare favorably with those of 
the celebrated Bohemian deposits, and will no doubt be found equally 
valuable for similar purposes. 1 was able to make a direct comparison 
of the two, with the assistance of Mr. Horback. This is one example 
of the advantages derived from sending a collection of California miner¬ 
als to the Exposition. 

0 

GRAPHITE OF CANADA AND OTHER LOCALITIES. 

Large masses of graphite were sent from Canada, together with the 
washed powder, and some solid masses cut into cubes and other forms. 
These were homogeneous, but the graphite appears to be much more 
crystalline and foliated than the graphite from the localities previously 
noticed. It occurs in Buckingham, in Lawrentian rocks. The graphite 
from Ceylon also shows a decidedly foliated crystalline structure. It is 
largely used in England and in the United States in the manufacture of 
crucibles. The principal exhibitors of plumbago crucibles and similar 
objects, were: The Patent Plumbago Crucible Company, under Mor¬ 
gan’s patent, Battersea Works, London, which received a silver medal. 
Some of their pots were three feet high. Boulton & Company of Lon¬ 
don exhibited a black lead pot five feet high. Becket & Sons, of Lon¬ 
don and Hull, showed a quantity of plumbago in large cakes formed of 
the purified and compressed mineral. 

The celebrated Cumberland plumbago was exhibited in the form of 
pencils made in the building by some of Mr. B. S. Cohen’s experienced 
English workmen. Mr. Cohen claims “to have perfected a process by 
which the powder and fragments of the Borrowdale lead (hitherto laid 
aside as almost useless), after being pulverized, ar'e consolidated and 
brought to a uniform consistency and so formed into slips of the exact 
size and degree required for each pencil, the lead retaining in its im¬ 
proved form all the valuable qualities which characterize fine Cumber¬ 
land plumbago ” The Six H, engineers’ pencils, are excellent. 

CRYOLITE. 

• 

A mass of this mineral three feet long and two feet thick, from Ivik- 
tout, Greenland, was exhibited by the Greenland Cryolite Mining Com¬ 
pany. This mineral is now largely used as a source of sodium and its 
compounds, and nearly twenty thousand tons were shipped in eighteen 
hundred and sixty-six. It was discovered in Greenland by Giesecke 
toward the end of the last century. In eighteen hundred and fifty Pro¬ 
fessor Thomson, of Copenhagen, discovered the decomposability of cry¬ 
olite by lime, upon which all the manufacture of cryolite soda depends. 
This was patented in eighteen hundred and fifty-three. The first vessel 
was sent to Greenland for cryolite in eighteen hundred and fifty-six, and 
the first manufactory of cryolite soda was established in Denmark in 
eighteen hundred and fifty-eight. One was established in Germany in 
eighteen hundred and sixty, and was followed by the erection of works 
in~the United States in eighteen hundred and sixty-five.. A company to 
work the mines was formed in eighteen hundred and sixty-five, with a 
capital of five hundred thousand rix dollars, under tne direction of Pro¬ 
fessor Julius Thomson and S. W. Isberg. 

This history, in brief, affords another example of the direct practical 


62 


value of mineralogical science. It shows what extended industrial 
results may follow from the discovery of an apparently unimportant 
mineral. The following shows the extent of the exportation of cryolite 
up to the year eighteen hundred and sixty-seven : 


Year. 


Number of Annual exports, 
vessels. Tons. 


1856 

1857 

1858 

1859 

1860 
1861 
1862 

1863 

1864 

1865 

1866 


Totals 


1 

343 

1 

800 

4 

2,359 

5 

2,788 

7 

4.821 

18 

7,639 

24 

11,046 

10 

5,498 

9 

4,261 

25 

19,892 

23 

19,853 

127 

79,300 


i 


The duties paid to the Government amounted to four hundred and 
seventy-five thousand five hundred and fifty-nine francs. Five and a 
half cubic feet are reckoned to each ton. 


ORES OF POTASH-STASSFURT PRODUCTS. 

The discovery of extensive mineral deposits of soluble salts of potash 
has led to a complete revolution in their production and value. It has 
been found that the salt beds at Stassfurt, on the line between Prussia 
and Anhalt, are accompanied by extensive deposits of chlorides of potas¬ 
sium, sulphate of potash and magnesia, boracic acid and other compounds 
—all of considerable commercial value. Borings have been carried to a 
depth of twelve hundred feet without passing through these deposits, 
and their extent is yet unknown, but they are regarded as practically 
inexhaustible. . The salt is mined in large quantities, and large pillars are 
left to support the roof; only about three quarters of the mass is re¬ 
moved. This salt is filled with thin sheets of anhydrite in wave-like 
layers. The potash salts are found above the salt with a layer of bora- 
cite (a borate of magnesia) between them. The mineral carnallite, a 
double chloride of potassium and magnesium, has a red color and is used 
chiefly for the preparation of potash. It is now exported in large quan- 
ties to the United States fof the manufacture of saltpetre by the decom¬ 
position of nitrate of soda. As in California we readily obtain nitrate 
of soda from South America, this manufacture may perhaps be carried 
on to advantage in San Francisco, and our chemical and powder manu¬ 
factories may profit by this suggestion. In view of the great importance 
of this potash mineral, an attempt has been made to have it placed upon 
the list of articles to be admitted to the United States free of duty. Its 
use in Europe has already checked the exportation of potash from the 
United States. 

































63 


One of the most important results is the employment of potash com¬ 
pounds, especially the sulphate, as fertilizers, and there are already ex¬ 
tensive establishments for their manufacture. The discovery is espe¬ 
cially valuable to the beet growers, and it is said to have revived this 
languishing industry. Ziervogel & Company, at Stassfurt, advertise fer¬ 
tilizing salts at the following prices per one hundred kilogrammes (two 
hundred and twenty pounds), delivered at the railwa}', exclusive of cost 
of packing: 


Article. 

Per cent. 

Price, francs. 

• * 

Sulnhate of uotash crude. 

18—20 

3.75 

Double sul oh ate of uotash and magnesia. 

30—33 

6.25 

Sulnhate of uotash. 

55—60 

18.75 

Sulnhate of uotash refined. 

80—85 

30.00 

Carbonate of magnesia for legumes. 

5.00 

Sulnhate of magnesia crude. 


3.75 




All these manure salts are well dried and ground and can be trans¬ 
ported in sacks. 

Another large establishment at Cologne, Yorster & Griineberg, adver¬ 
tise similar compounds at the same prices. 

The cost of transportation from Stassfurt to Havre for five thousand 
kilogrammes is about four francs for each one hundred kilogrammes. 
Cost of sacking, one franc twenty-five centimes per one hundred kilo¬ 
grammes. 

BORAX. 


There was no display of borax at all comparable in interest with that 
made by the California Borax Company, in the two collections sent on. 
(Vide Catalogue.) The crude native crystals, as extracted from the 
mud of the lake, are remarkable for their great size. Several of those 
shown were from three to five inches long and from one to three inches 
thick, and they were regarded with much interest by mineralogists. 


TORCELAIN AND THE MATERIALS FOR ITS MANUFACTURE. 

It is impossible to describe the variety and beauty of the porcelains 
of Sevres and Limoges, of England and of Prussia. Those of Sevres 
occupied a large space in a kind of hall or saloon, the walls of which 
were decorated by the inimitable Gobelin tapestries. Minton & Co., of 
Stoke-upon-Trent, made a great display of their superior manufactures 
amono- which may be noted particularly their faiences of original and 
artistic patterns; their large vases for plants; ornamented dishes for 
the table, and their tiles in great variety. The beautiful productions of 
the Wedgwoods were also shown, in the form of vases and tablets, with 
their exquisite has reliefs, which last are now much used for the decora¬ 
tion of furniture. The collection of Dresden China was particularly 
fine. One vase measured over six feet in height and was accompanied 

by candelabra also six feet high. . 

The displays of French faience were extremely interesting. lne 
prevailing infatuation for specimens of the old enamelled wares of the 
















64 


sixteenth century has excited manufacturers to produce imitations of 
the curious productions of Bernard Palissy, of Lisieux, and of Rouen and 
Nevers. These manufacturers, most of them from Haute-Vienne, made 
a collective display. The display from Creil and Montereau may also 
be cited. Artistic faience , however, has its centre in Paris and its 
environs. The great centres of the manufacture of porcelain in France 
are Limoges, where there are more than thirty white China works, 
Berry and Paris and its environs, including Sevres and Champagne. 
A large business is carried on in Paris in the decoration of porcelain, 
and one thousand three hundred and sixty-two men and four hundred 
and fifty-eight women are occupied in this way alone. Paris is regarded 
as the great centre of the porcelain and faience trade, and Limoges is 
next in importance. The value of'the annual production of fine faience 
in France is estimated at ten million francs, and that of porcelain at 
twenty million francs. 

Clay for making pottery is found in almost every part of France. 
The kaolins of St. Grieix, near Limoges, are the types of the best clays 
for the manufacture of China, but the kaolins of the Pyrenees, the 
Cher and the Allier are competing with them, and are largely used at 
Berry. 

It is observed by the Committee of Admission of Class XYII that 
steam power has been successfully substituted to a great extent for 
hand labor in the making of faience , but not in the manufacture of por¬ 
celain, for the softening caused by the high temperature required for 
the baking deforms pieces made in any other way than by hand. The 
hope is expressed, however, that machinery may yet be employed with 
success in preparing and shaping the material. Workmen are almost 
always paid by the piece, and owing to the tenderness of the material, 
which prevents its being moved about, it is necessary for them to work 
in the factories. 

The improvements in the ceramic art in France during the past twelve 
years are enumerated by Salretat and Dommartin as follows: 

“ First —The increasing use of terra cotta in the decoration of public 
and private edifices. 

“ Second —The almost complete renewing of the plant of the faience 
potteries, so that good organization, from being an exception, has become 
the rule. 

“ Third —The substitution of coal for wood in the baking of porcelain, 
and the consequent reduction in the cost of the process. 

“ Fourth —The improvement introduced into the art of decoration 
through the chromolithographic process.” 

Among the many exhibitions of materials for the manufacture of por¬ 
celain, the following may be cited. An excellent kaolin is found in Brit¬ 
tany, and contains fifty-three per cent, of useful earth, of which the fol¬ 
lowing is an analysis: 





65 




Component parts. 

Analysis. 

A 

Water, by ignition. 

12.50 

48.00 

37.86 

00.75 

00.15 

00.48 

00.76 

13.10 

48.00 

97 no 

Silica. 

Alumina. . 

Oxide of iron.. 

j 

► 2.50 

Lime. 

Magnesia. 

Alkalies. 

Totals. 

100.00 

100.60 



The second column of figures (A) represents the normal composition 
of the kaolin of St Grieix, which is reputed to be the best kaolin known. 
A mixture of this kaolin of Brittan 3 T as follows: 


Brittany kaolin clay. 

Residue of the same, crushed 
Chalk of Bongival. 


76 

20 

6 


gave a paste which, in baking, gave a good white and translucent body. 

A sample of feldspar in the Swedish section was shown by B. R. Gey- 
ers, of Stockholm, together with a display of the porcelain ware made 
out of it. It is an orthoclase, and is sold at the rate of thirty-five francs 
per one thousand kilogrammes—about seven dollars per ton, crude. It 
contains twelve per cent, of potash and three per cent, of soda. 

Another exhibit from Sweden, from the quarries of Be Ileidenstam, near 
Stockholm, consisted of both potash and soda feldspars. It is delivered 
in quantity at Havre for sixty-five francs; at Rouen for seventy francs, 
and at Limoges for one hundred francs per one thousand kilogrammes. 

TERRA COTTA. 

Terra cotta is coming into extensive use for architectural decoration. 
A o*reat display of this material was made at the Exposition, not only 
in the form of ornaments for buildings, but in vases, columns and mon¬ 
umental figures. The beautiful twisted columns of the boiler-house in 
the Park were made of terra cotta; and were justly much admired. In 
London, the South Kensington Museum, and other public buildings, are 
decorated with terra cotta ornaments. It is used also at Bci lin loi the 
new Chemical College, and for the Cathedral. . 

As the materials for this manufacture are abundant and cheap in Cal¬ 
ifornia, and as the climate is especially favorable, terra cotta should be 
extensively used, borne very fine specimens ot this manufacture were 
shown at one of the Fairs of the Mechanics’ Institute a few years ago. 

MICA. 

S. H. Randall of New York, exhibited specimens of mica (isinglass), 
feldspar for porcelain manufacture, beryls and quartz. The sheets of 

9 


1 
















































66 


mica were very broad and colorless, and far superior to any other shown. 
The mineral is used largely for transparent doors for stoves and furnaces. 

ORNAMENTAL AND PRECIOUS STONES. 

There was a very large display of ornamental and of precious stones, 
either in the rough or cut and polished. Among the ornamental stones 
we include marbles, serpentine, granite and porphyry, which were 
shown in columns, vases or tablets beautifully polished; and jasper, 
onyx, malachite and lapis lazuli, which are worked into smaller objects. 
In these last named stones the collection from Russia was particularly 
rich. One of the most conspicuous objects was an elliptical vase, about 
six feet high, sculptured at the Imperial establishment of Ekaterinberg, 
out of a compact gray jasper from Ivalkhansk. The shaft supporting 
the basin was ornamented by an entwined vine branch, with leaves and 
fruit exquisitely chiselled in high relief and polished. 

Two magnificent candelabra, with pedestals of rhodonite, were shown, 
from the same establishment. These pedestals were over eight feet 
high and were nearly two feet broad at the base, but are probably 
formed of several pieces united. The rhodonite appears to occur in 
large homogeneous masses, and to* be extensively employed for orna¬ 
mental purposes. Jt takes a high polish and has a pleasing rose-red 
color, slightly mottled with black. The pedestals are beautifully formed, 
and the numerous arms for sustaining its candles are of metal elabor¬ 
ately chased and gilt. 

Jean Stebakoff, of Ekaterinberg, exhibited a great variety of beautiful 
paperweights, made of polished slabs of jasper, malachite or lapis lazuli,' 
surmounted by groups of flowers or bunches of fruits in their natural 
colors, all cut out of various high-colored ornamental and precious 
stones. Similar ornaments adorned the lapis lazuli panels of the mag¬ 
nificent cabinets presented by the Emperor of Russia to the Empress 
Eugenie. 

1 he Government establishment at Tiflis, Caucasus, sent numerous 
ornamental objects fashioned from a kind of onyx—marble similar to 
the beautiful stalagmite marbles of Mexico and of Algeria; also a vari¬ 
ety of smaller objects, in a peculiar chatoyant obsidian. The marble 
onyx of Algeria was largely shown in the collection sent from that 
country, and it is now extensively used in Europe for ornamentation 
either in a variety of small objects of art, such as pedestals, inkstands, 
paper weights, or inlaid as borders in marble slabs for tables. 

The Aberdeen granite, which has a pleasing red color, was shown in 
laige columns beautifully polished. It is coming into extensive use in 
England for ornamenting public and private buildings, and is deserv¬ 
edly much admired. The two polished columns at the entrance of the 
Pacific Mail Steamship Company’s office in New York are formed of 
this stone. 

Among the marbles, the mantel made of the Suisun marble of Cali¬ 
fornia deserves particular mention for the unique beauty of the material. 
It was shown from the establishment of J. Shuster, Brooklyn, New York* 
togethei with mantels of the same pattern made out of Tennessee marble 
and the white statuary marble of Vermont. The California marble was 
much admired by connoisseurs. Specimens of other marbles from Cali¬ 
fornia were shown in the collection made by Dr. Pigne. 

There were some beautiful vases and slabs of polished porphyry from 
Norway, and a very interesting suite of the marbles of Italy, in'blocks 







about OHefoQt square. The verd antique marbles (or serpentines) of that 
countiy were shown by a series of sixty specimens, each one highly 
tmished, and Offering in either texture or color, from the others. 7 
he wealth of the Russian Empire in precious stones was illustrated 
V, 1a 8 ® 1 ] ie8 of magnificent cut gems of the country, sent from the Impe- 
lal cabinet. This series contained amethysts, sapphires, emeralds, aqua 
nnes, cry s phenacites, white topaz, rubellites, tourmalines, sphene 
and chry so beryl, all of them of unusual size and brilliancy. Some of the 
pnenacites, which had a brown color when first shown, became bleached 
and colorless after exposure to the light. 

The costly displays of jewellery by the leading British and Continen¬ 
tal jewellers contained a great variety of precious stones, remarkable for 
their size and beauty. Hancock & Co. of London exhibited a sapphire 
ot fine color, one and a half inches long and three quarters of an inch 
wide. M. Melleno exhibited a number of very large sapphires, and one 
of them weighed four hundred carats. 


DIAMONDS. 

. In addition to the great number of large and well selected and matched 
diamonds mounted in various ways for personal adornment, some of the 
exhibitors added greatly to the interest of their displays, and gave them 
an additional scientific value, by showing the gem in its various colors; 
thus, for example, the following different colors were shown by a suite 
of nine large stones in the case of Hancock & Co.: Hark green; light 
green, like chrysolite; topaz yellow; hyacinth red; pink, like pink 
topaz; cinnamon-brown; bluish black, and black with a lavender shade. 
A peculiar steel-like and graphitic lustre of the gem was well shown in 
a tiara and necklace, formed of about forty stones, varying from one 
fourth of an inch to five eighths of an inch in diameter, but not, how¬ 
ever, wholly free from flaws. 

The interesting art of cutting and polishing diamonds was exhibited 
by M. Coster of Amsterdam, in a building erected for the purpose in the 
Park. A separate steam engine was erected in this building, and several 
of M. Coster’s workmen were constantly engaged there in all the opera¬ 
tions required to prepare the rough jems for jewellers. All the pro¬ 
cesses of scraping, cleaning, facetting and polishing were witnessed daily 
by hundreds or thousands of persons. The exhibit had also a very great 
scientific interest, inasmuch as the rough stones from the principal 
diamond-producing localities were shown in all their varieties of crys¬ 
talline form and color, together with the minerals and washed pebbles 
usually found with them in the deposits. In the suite of diamonds of 
different colors there were several remarkable stones. One of them 
weighing twenty-nine carats (about ninety-two grains), a pear-shaped 
brilliant, about three quarters of an inch long,, has the property of 
acquiring a rose-pink color, like that of a rose spinel on being strongly 
heated. This color is retained in the dark after cooling, but if the 
diamond is exposed to the light the color soon vanishes. This experi¬ 
ment has been repeatedly performed with like results. Another stone, 
half an inch or more in diameter, having a beautiful bluish black color 
by reflected light, appeared perfectly opaque when held between the eye 
and the light, owing, probably, to the total reflection of the light from 
the facets of the stone. 

The collection contained masses of the crude black variety of diamond 
known as “carbon" (valuable for its powder), which are sometimes two 


68 


inches in diameter. Another variety, translucent, and apparently a com¬ 
pound crystallization, and of no value as a gem except for its powder, is 
found with the diamonds of Kio and is known as the “ boast.” 

The rolled and water-worn pebbles found with the diamond consist 
chiefly of the heavy minerals, such as magnetite, chromite, ilmenite, 
sutile, tin-stone and other mineral species very similar to the coarse, 
heavy, black sand obtained in sluices by gold washers when they “ clean 
up.” All these minerals are evidently derived from the rocks eroded by 
the streams and concentrated in their beds, without having any special 
connection with the diamond or its matrix. 

The conglomerate called cascalho , which was shown in all its varieties, 
evidently corresponds in its origin to the “cement” of gold miners. It 
consists merely of the waterwvorn pebbles and heavy minerals which 
accompany the diamonds in the streams, cemented together at and near 
the bed-rock by the infiltration of silicious, calcareous or ferruginous 
waters. These masses of cascalho , or diamond cement, contained dia¬ 
monds cemented in the midst of the pebbles. 

This cement is found in large quantities and onty a portion of it is 
broken up by hand. There is little doubt that with machinery it could 
be so broken that many of the diamonds could be liberated without 
injury. In gold districts more or less gold is found in the deposits and 
in the cement with the diamonds. 

The yearly importation of rough diamonds from eighteen hundred and 
sixt}'-two to eighteen hundred and sixty-six has averaged one hundred 
and seventy-six thousand carats, or nearly one thousand pounds troy. 

OPALS, TURQUOISE, BERYL. 

Some remarkably large opals were shown by Emil Goldschmidt, of 
Lower Austria. The largest one, oval in form and about two and a half 
inches long and an inch wide, was valued at seventy-five thousand francs. 
A second, of triangular shape and about one and one half inches across 
the face, was valued at fifty thousand francs, and the third, an ellipsoidal 
specimen, one and one half inches long and three-quarters of an inch 
in diameter, at thirty thousand francs. The amygdaloidal rock in which 
the gem is found was also shown. 

A fine series of turquoise specimens, in the rough and cut, was shown 
by Petiteau, of Paris. Amongst the cut stones there were several of 
good color as large as pigeons’ eggs. 

One of the ornaments of a massive piece of ornamental work for the 
Emperor’s saloon at the Hotel de Villo consisted of a bust of his Maj¬ 
esty, about one third life size, cut out of a single aquamarine of good 
color and free of flaws. It is supported upon a pedestal of bloodstone, 
and figures upon each side, representing peace and war, are cut out of 
smoky crystal, and are draped with silver. 

Many very large and transparent crystals of quartz were sent from 
Japan, Province of Kei, where it occurs in abundance and is wrought 
into many ornamental objects besides the large crystal balls. An opti¬ 
cal examination of some of these crystals by M. Des Cloizeaux showed 
that, in common with quartz from most other localities, the internal 
arrangement of the particles is so complex that plates giving a uniform 
tint in polarized light cannot be obtained. 

A largo mass of nephrite (jade), and highly polished, was sent from 
Siberia by M. Alibcrt. It was about two feet long, and weighed one 





69 


thousand pounds. This stone, which is so much prized for ornaments in 
China, is beginning to be used in Paris for the same purposes. Lapis 
lazuli, polished jaspers, porphyries, malachite, and other highly colored 
stones, are now used to a considerable, extent for panels and ornaments 
upon choice pieces of furniture. 

* 


/ 









CHAPTER VI. 


CIYIL ENGINEERING — SUEZ CANAL — BETON — ASPHALT 
AND BITUMEN—ASPHALT PAVEMENTS. 


MODELS OF PUBLIC WORKS. 

To civil engineers the exhibition of models of the most important 
public works of France and other countries was exceedingly interesting. 
The models in the French section were singularly complete, and on such 
a large scale that the minute details of construction could be clearly seen. 
In fact, it is better to study the construction of the works by the models 
than to examine the works themselves, for in general the models are so 
made that they show the interior as well as exterior details, from the 
foundation stones up. For all sub aqueous structures the models are of 
course preferable. The scale is generally one twenty-fifth of full size, 
but varies from one tenth to one fiftieth. 

In the Spanish section there was a sectional model of the great break¬ 
water of Tarragona. This work, when finished, will be about fifteen 
hundred yards long, and one hundred yards wide at the top and three 
hundred yards at the base. Enormous blocks of rock are first thrown 
down, and interspaces are filled with smaller fragments. A layer of 
concrete is then laid, and thus forms the foundation for the pier. It will 
be seen that this construction is similar to that adopted by the Harbor 
Oommissioners'of San Francisco for the harbor wall. 

SUEZ CANAL. 

The progress of the great Suez Canal was fully illustrated in a sepa¬ 
rate building in the Park by a large model, a panorama, photographs 
and miscellaneous collections. The model of the Isthmus was a com¬ 
plete miniature representation of the country, with all its elevations and 
depressions, on a scale of one to five hundred thousand. But the canal 
and the elevations were somewhat exaggerated, the canal being as six to 










71 


one, and the heights as sixty to one. The distance between the Med¬ 
iterranean and the Eed Sea is about seventy-five miles, but the length 
of the canal will be about one hundred miles. Sixty-three miles of the 
distance is eithei at or below the sea level, and the remainder of the 
route requires cuttings of no very great depth, and in sand or earth. 
Those poi tions of the route below the sea level are where the canal 
enters a great interior basin, which it is believed was at no very distant 
pei iod occupied by the water of the Eed Sea. The completion of the 
canal from the Eed Sea to this basin will allow r the waters to enter and 
fill the basin. It is computed that it will hold nine hundred millions of 
cubic metres of water. At present it is occupied by shallow lakes of 
bitter water, and by extensive beds of salt, covered in places by a soft, 
marshy deposit, upon which it is very dangerous to venture. The 
region, in fact, is very similar to some of the old lake basins in Hevada 
during the rainy season. 

The canal is to have a breadth of one hundred metres at the water 
line, and a depth of eight metres. The slope, or batter, of the sides 
varies somewhat in different portions of the route, according to the 
nature of the ground. It is nowhere less than two horizontal to one 
vertical. 

. The beach of the Mediterranean, for a long distance from the mouth 
of the canal, has a very gentle slope, and it was necessary to construct 
an artificial harbor or port, by the aid of long jetties or breakwaters. 
The place selected is known as Port Said. Two breakwater piers have 
been built out into the sea; that on the west side is about three thousand 
one hundred metres long, and that on the other side about one thousand 
six hundred metres. Their shore ends are one thousand four hundred 
metres apart, and as they extend seaward they converge to within seven 
hundred metres, and one projects somewhat beyond the end of the other. 
The space included between these two great arms is sufficient to accom¬ 
modate fleets of hundreds of vessels, and they can lie there in safety 
while waiting their turns for the passage of the Isthmus. This artificial 
harbor will be dredged out to a depth of thirty feet. The jetties are 
about seventeen feet wide on the top, and they rise about seven feet 
above the average level of the Mediterranean. The talus slopes at an 
angle of forty-five degrees. 

For the construction of these enormous piers it was at first proposed 
to use stones obtained from a quarry beyond Alexandria, but it was found 
that it took a long time to obtain them, and the expenses of transporta¬ 
tion were great. This induced the company to enter into a contract 
with Messrs. Dussaud Brothers, to make artificial blocks of stone out of 
lime aud the beach sand—a method which this firm had successfully 
employed at Marseilles, Cherbourg and d’Alger. 

These artificial blocks are made by mixing the beach sand with Theil 
hydraulic lime in the proportion of three hundred and twenty-five kilo¬ 
grammes of lime in dry powder, with one cubic metre of sand. The 
mixture is allowed to set and dry in the moulds, and is then exposed for 
two months to the sun and air, which hardens it into solid stones suffi¬ 
ciently firm to permit them to be placed; and the hardening continues 
below the water. Each of these blocks weighs twenty-five thousand 
kilogrammes. They are moved and placed, by the aid of steam cranes, 
with as much care and precision as a mason places a brick in a wall. 
The interspaces are filled with small stones, and under the action of the 
sea the whole soon becomes a compact and solid mass. The total cubical 



\ 


72 


contents of these piers will be nearly two hundred and fifty thousand 
metres.* 

PROGRESS OF PUBLIC WORKS IN FRANCE. 

It appears by the report of the Baron Baude, member of the Commit¬ 
tee of Admission of Class Sixty-five, that nine thousand kilometres of 
railway were built in France in eighteen hundred and sixt3 r -six, and that 
“ the works in ports, for the lighting and erection of beacons on the 
coasts, for the salubrity of towns, the sewers, and the distribution of 
water, have received a proportionate impulse, and that the greater part 
of the large towns of France have been completely transformed by their 
application. The Committee also points out, among the principal tech¬ 
nical improvements realized since eighteen hundred and fifty-five: 

“First —The progress made in the trades of hydraulic lime, cements, 
artificial stones, potteries, slate and asphalts, and in that of hammered 
metal applied to the preservation and decoration of roofs. 

“ Second —The increase of the use of metal structures, which are more 
and more appreciated every day. 

“ Third —The increase in the number of machines employed in working 
wood for joiners and other work. 

“Fourth —The constantly increasing application of compressed air in 
places deep and difficult of access. 

“Fifth —The ingenious methods of lifting heavy bridges, viaducts and 
other metallic works. 

“Sixth —The new system of movable dams. 

“Seventh —The recently invented and powerful dredging apparatus. 

“Eighth —The application of electricity to light-houses, and the new 
combinations made with a view to assist navigation—amongst.which may 
be reckoned the creation of a system of coast semaphores.” 

We may here mention, in addition, the very great changes that are 
making in the City of Paris by opening new and broad avenues through 
the most crowded portions, the erection of new and superior buildings, 
and the construction of a new trunk sewer at a considerable depth below 
the surface to convey the sewerage of the city to a point upon the Seine 
several miles below. This work is prosecuted by means of shafts sunk 
at intervals, in the same way that drain tunnels are made for mines. 

CEMENTS, BETON. 

A French cement company of Boulogne-sur-Mer made a very interest¬ 
ing exhibition of French “Portland cement,” for which they received a 
gold medal. The extraordinary strength of this cement was shown by 
means ol blocks cut into the form of the letter I, the projections at the 
top and bottom serving to hold iron clamps b}” which weighted platforms 
are attached to show the strain which the various mixtures of cement 
and sand or pebbles will bear. A block of this shape, one and a half 
inches square in the centre and made of a mixture of four volumes of 
sand and one of cement, sustained a weight of nine hundred kilogrammes 
(about two thousand pounds). Another block four inches square, com¬ 
posed of two volumes of sand and one volume of cement, sustained a 


*For further details reference may be made to “ Exposition de la Compagnie Universelle du 
Canal Maritime dc Suez.'* 8vo. Paris, 1867. Exposition Universelle. 









73 


weight of one thousand two hundred kilogrammes. The “sand” mixed 
with this is as coarse as beans and peas 

Another and very striking mode of testing is to make a column of 
bricks, united by cement, and after they have dried, to extend the col¬ 
umn horizontally like an arm, supported at one end only, thus bring¬ 
ing the strain of the weight of the whole mass upon the last joint of 
cement. Some columns six feet long were shown extended in this way. 

Important results are obtained by the employment of “hetons ogglo- 
merh ,” which consist of intimate mixtures of sand and lime, with a very 
small amount of water. The novelty does not consist in the use of 
new materials, but only in the manner of preparing and using them. 
It is claimed that by securing the intimate admixture of the materials, 
and the use of only just sufficient water to moisten the surfaces of the 
grains of sand, the mixture rapidly hardens into stone, and that the par¬ 
ticles are held together with extraordinary force. The use of water in 
excess, as in ordinary mortar, it is said, leaves innumerable cavities, 
which render ordinary mortars porous, friable and crumbling. This mix¬ 
ture, when properly prepared, may be moulded into any form, and will, 
in a few days at farthest, become as hard and firm as natural stone, and 
quite as capable of resisting the action of the weather. With these prop¬ 
erties it is easy to see that monoliths of almost any dimensions may be 
made, and that the mixture must be of immense value in building. 

ASPHALT AND BITUMEN. 

But the results with Beton are not so extraordinary as those obtained 
with a calcareous rock impregnated with bitumen, which is now success¬ 
fully employed for paving the roadways of the finest streets of Paris. 
This rock is comparatively rare, being found at onl} T a few localities in 
the Jura Mountains, where it can be extracted with advantage. It is 
called asphalte by the French, but consists of ninety to ninety-four per 
cent, of carbonate of lime and ten to six of bitumen, and is a bituminous 
or asphaltic limestone. It has the appearance of crude gypsum, and has 
a chocolate color, but becomes white or bleached on exposure to the 
weather. On close examination it is found that each small grain or 
particle of the rock is enfilmed with bitumen, coating it like a varnish and 
causing all the particles to closely adhere. When the rock is heated 
this bitumen softens, and the mass crumbles to powder, but speedily 
hardens upon cooling. Upon this property is founded its use for paving 
and other purposes. 

The roadway is first graded and covered with a layer of concrete 
from four to six inches thick, according to the nature of the ground, the 
object being to furnish a firm, solid foundation upon which to spread the 
hot powdered asphalt in a thin, even layer. The asphalt rock is fiist 
broken into fragments about as large as those ordinarily used in macad¬ 
amizing It is then “decrepitated” by heating it in sheet iron vessels 
to a gentle heat until it falls into powder. This js generally done near 
the place where the pavement is to be laid. While still hot it is taken 
in iron carts to the place and spread in an even layer upon the surface 


* My attention was called to this subject, but I was unable to see any experiments or to devote 
any time to an investigation of its merits. The above notice is based upon information received, 
and in part upon the treatise of Francois Coignet, “ Emploi des Betons Agglomeres. 8vo. 
Paris, 1862. Eugene La Croix, Editeur. 


Id 




I 


74 

of the concrete, which must be quite clean and smooth. It is only 
necessary to spread the warm powder evenly, and then to tamp it by 
means of large flat faced irons, which are first heated in a portable fur¬ 
nace near by. In this way a perfectly smooth, even surface is given to 
the asphalt, and in two hours it is as hard as stone, and horses may be 
driven upon it. It is usually compressed before being used, by passing 
over it a heavy roller weighing from two thousand five hundred to three 
thousand kilogrammes. It is then as smooth as any floor and presents 
a continuous unbroken surface of stone. The thickness of this layer is 
usually from one and one half to two inches, and it is estimated that the 
wear is not more than a millimetre per annum, or less than the one 
thirt} T -8econd part of an inch. This seems almost incredible, but it is 
evident from the nature of the surface that it must wear a long time, for 
there are no joints or inequalities to jar the wheels of passing vehicles, 
which roll over it with the greatest ease and almost without noise. It 
is found, also, that horses do not slip upon this pavement as easily as 
upon stone. The asphalt can be taken up at any time and be relaid, for 
it does not lose its propert} r of softening by use. So, also, a new piece 
of pavement may be perfectly joined to an old layer by simply heating 
the edges with hot iron. 

Among its other advantages, it is impervious to water, and may be 
used for roofs, or for lining cisterns. It is said that a similar material 
was used in Memphis and Babylon some thousands of years ago. 

Such material would be invaluable in California, and it is highly prob¬ 
able that it occurs in the Coast ranges. 

Bitumen is also used to a considerable extent for the sidewalks of 
Paris, but it is mixed with the asphaltic rock so as to form what is 
termed mastic d'asphalte. 

This is prepared by heating from ninety to one hundred kilogrammes 
of bitumen in an open boiler, and when the mass is quite liquid and at 
or near the point of volatilization, the asphaltic rock is thrown into it, 
little by little. This rapidly falls into powder and mixes with the bitu¬ 
men. The operation is continued until the mass becomes pasty, and 
then somewhat friable and begins to stick to the sides of the vessel and 
to the arms of the agitators. Six hours is required for the heating and 
mixing It is then run off and cast into molds so as to form circular 
cakes or discs about one foot in diameter and four inches thick. In this 
form it is sent to Paris to be used for the pavements and for other pur¬ 
poses. The mixture contains nearly one hundred parts of bitumen and 
fourteen hundred of asphalt. 

The compound is used not only for sidewalks, but for forming tight 
joints between stones in damp places and to prevent the infiltration of 
water through the masonry of arches, to line cisterns and reservoirs for 
water, and as a substitute for brick or tile floors in public buildings. For 
the sidewalks of Paris it is mixed with gravel in the proportion of 
twenty-three of mastic to fifteen of gravel. The mastic is melted in a 
portable sheet iron boiler mounted on two wheels, so that it can be 
readily moved from place to place by one horse. It is cylindrical in 
form, and the rear end has a fire-box like that of a locomotive, and the 
flames and smoke circulate under the boiler and escape at the other end 
through a sheet iron chimney' about six feet high. Their capacity is 
ordinarily equal to about nine square metres of pavement. A little 
bitumen is added to aid in the liquefaction or fusion of the mastic, and 
when it is all melted the clean and dry gravel is thrown in. The pave¬ 
ment is usually made with a layer of concrete from two to four inches 






75 


thick, on which the mastic and gravel is spread to a depth or thickness 
ot one half to three fourths of an inch. Each square metre of sidewalk 
so covered requires: 


• 

Material. 

Kilogrammes. 

Asphaltic mastic.... 

23.0 

Gravel. 

15.0 

Bitumen to aid the melting. 

1.5 

O 


And the price, including a bed or layer of concrete four inches thick, is 
six francs to the square metre. The following table shows the price in 
Paris of the asphalt, the asphalt mastic, and the principal works in 
bitumen of Val-de-Travers :* 


Asphalt and works in bitumen. 


Francs. 


Asphalt rock, per metric quintal. 

Asphalt in powder, per metric quintal. 

Bituminous mastic, in cakes, per metric quintal.. 

Bitumen, refined, per metric quintal. 

Sidewalks, barracks, etc., one half inch thick, per square metre.. 

Pavements, on a slope, per square metre. 

Covering vaults, per square metre. 

Boadways in mastic, or pressed asphalt, per square metre. 


7.00 
8.00 
11 00 
40.00 
4.25 
6.50 
5 50 
13.00 


i 


* For this table and a part of tho foregoing data I am indebted to M. J. Claudel, “ Pratique do 
l’Art de Construire.” 



































CHAPTER VII. 


MIKING MACHINERY. 

I 


It is the general expression of mining engineers and experts who 
visited the Exposition, that the display of mining machinery was not as 
large and interesting as there was reason to expect. One explanation 
of the disappointment may be found in the fact that the objects exhib¬ 
ited were scattered about in the vast assemblage of machines in the 
outer circle, or were placed in the outbuildings of the Park. If all had 
been brought together in one place, the display would have been con¬ 
sidered much more satisfactory. There was, however, very little that 
was new and striking. There is no great improvement or advance to 
record—scarcely anything that has not been already described in mining 
and engineering publications. Some of the most important of late im¬ 
provements in dressing machinery were not represented at all; such, for 
example, as the continual working stossherd of Kittinger, and his other 
various contrivances for sizing pulverized ores before concentration. 
The California pan machines, concentrators, etc., which form the bulk of 
our mining exhibits at the exhibitions of the Mechanics’ Institute, were 
not to be found in the Exhibition, nor a stamp mill or the parts of one. 
In fact, there is not one in Europe comparable with ours for perfection 
of construction or in working effect. The bulk of the exhibit, however, 
consisted of the very machines in which we on the Pacific Coast are 
most deficient and behind the rest of the mining world, namely: hoist¬ 
ing machinery. 

The various objects exhibited may be classed under the following 
heads: 











First —Mining tools. 

Second —Rock perforators or drilling machines. 
Third —Boring tools for wells or shafts. 

Fourth —Hoisting engines and apparatus. 

Fifth —Cables. 

Sixth —Cages and wagons. 

Seventh —Machines for crushing and dressing ores. 








77 


MINING TOOLS. 

Under this head are included drills, hammers, picks, blasting imple¬ 
ments, lamps, etc. lhe tools ot Germany and Austria were shown in 
their respective sections, and were displayed upon the walls above the 
maps and sections of mines. All of the drills are characterized by their 
extreme lightness, as compared with American tools of the same kind. 
Round bar iron tipped with steel, or round steel, is used instead of octag¬ 
onal bars. The picks, however, are more heavy and clumsy than ours, 
and are not so well mounted. There is no wood so well adapted to the 
purpose as our hickory, and in no other country is so much pains taken 
as with us in fashioning the handles of common tools. Some turned 
pick-handles from Australia, made of the hard woods of that country, 
may be cited as an exception. 

The various mining costumes sent may be appropriately noted here—- 
although a detailed description is impossible. In the Chilean section the 
heap of copper and silver ores was permanently presided over bj 7 a fig¬ 
ure of a miner with one foot resting upon a block of the ore. In the 
Austrian section two figures displayed the peculiarities of the German 
miner’s dress, including, of course, the fanciful cap and the leather apron 
placed behind. In the Park of the French section a complete miner’s 
cottage gave a view of the home comforts of the French collier, and at 
the same time served the purpose of exhibition of the great variety of 
coal mining tools and mining lamps placed around the room. 


ROCK DRILLING MACHINES. 


There was more of novelty under this head than any other. There 
were machines for drilling holes, driven either by the force of compressed 
air or bj 1- water under pressure ; machines to drill one hole, or to drill 
several at the same time, or to cut an annular groove or channel around 
a central core of rock in opening tunnels. To describe all these ma¬ 
chines would be to give a long chapter of the experience at the tunnel 
of Mount Cenis. The machine of General Ilaupt attracted much atten¬ 
tion in France and in England, and was noticed by the General himself 
at the meeting of the British Association at Dundee. He claims to have 
achieved a perfect success in the application of steam to tunnelling, and 
he makes out a very strong case against the advocates of compressed 
air, by showing what an enormous force is required to force it to great 
distances in pipes of ordinary diameter. He proposes to mine in true 
military style by throwing up breastworks in front of a blast, so that 
the miners need'not lose time by retreating at the word “ fire,” but stand 
and face the shots like heroes. This may suit military miners, but it 
will be a long time before we can find any better and cheaper protection 
than a cross-cut or side drift. 

The drilling machine was tested in Cornwall last Summer, but is said 
not to have given the expected satisfaction to the Cornishmen. 

In the Swedish section, the boring machine of Bergstroem was at 
W ork upon a mass of hard iron ore. It is said to be in successful use at 
the Perseberg iron mines of Sweden, and to have replaced hand labor in 
drilling, with a saving of twenty to twenty-five per cent, in cost. This 
machine is worked by compressed air, weighs only one hundred and 
twenty-two pounds, and costs about one hundred dollais. It is small 
and compact, and is supported in place by set-screws bearing against the 
top and the bottom, or against the sides of the tunnel. 


78 


The Swedish machine is the most portable and compact which has 
been shown, but we are promised something still better by Darlington, 
of England, who will use the pressure of a column of water to operate 
the drill. His machine will be shortly introduced to the notice of Cali¬ 
fornia miners, and it has this great recommendation for them, that it is 
very light and cheap, and is to be operated by water alone, and does not 
require any engine or expense for installation. 

In the French section, Messrs. Huet & Gayler showed a perforator, 
the invention of M. de la Hoche Tolay and M. Pirret, which operates 
upon the hardest rocks by means of rough diamonds set firmly in the 
end of a long, hollow cylinder, about as large as a gun barrel. The cyl¬ 
inder thus armed is made to revolve rapidly and is brought against the 
rock by the pressure of water. The diamonds at the end form a kind of 
“crown saw,” and they cut the rock, whether limestone, sandstone, 
granite or flint, into powder. This powder is removed by a constant 
stream of water, which at the same time keeps the drill cool. An annu¬ 
lar channel or opening is thus made in the rock, and the central core of 
rock passes into the hollow of the drill, and breaks out when the drill is 
withdrawn. The diamonds last a long time before they show wear, and 
when they lose their cutting angles they are turned over in their setting. 
The tip of the drill in which they are set is attached to the cylinder by 
a bayonet joint, and can thus be changed with facility. 

This is also known as the “ Leschot drill/’ and the same or a similar 
drill has been used to drill holes at least four inches in diameter in the 
oil regions of Pennsylvania 

It is claimed that with this drill and the apparatus which has been no¬ 
ticed, holes may be drilled in quartz at the rate of over half an inch per 
minute under a pressure of eight hemispheres and one hundred turns 
per minute. In mica slates the advance is about an inch and a half. 
With the same pressure and a velocity of two hundred and fifty turns 
per minute, the progress in quartz is increased to one and one-third 
inches per minute. 

COAL CUTTING MACHINE. 

A machine is shown in the English section for under-cutting coal beds 
or blocking out masses of coal. It is operated by compressed air, and 
will cut a channel only two or three inches wide and two feet or more in 
depth. It is said to be in successful operation in England and to effect 
a great saving over hand labor, not only in work but in coal also, as there 
is not so much waste. 

Another machine, shown by Messrs. Carrett, Marshall & Co., of Leeds, 
is so contrived as to plane or gouge out a groove in the coal by means 
of strong steel cutters, mounted one behind the other on a strong bar of 
steel, to which a reciprocating motion is given The tool is° forced 
against the coal by hydraulic pressure, and there is no percussion and 
but little noise. 

The colliers of South Lancashire and Cheshire have offered prizes of 
five hundred, two hundred and one hundred pounds sterling for the first, 
second and third best coal cutting machines. 

TOOLS FOR BORING SHAFTS. 

It is unnecessary to describe the various forms of augers and drills for 
boring artesian wells displayed in the French section. They are not 
superior to those now in use with us for sinking oil wells. But there is 






79 


another class of boring tools used for opening shafts in soft ground or in 
stratified formations that can be easily perforated and where quantities 
of water are encountered. 

These tools are enormous reamers or drills from ten to sixteen feet 
across the face, so that they will open circular shafts of the same dimen¬ 
sions. They are made of wrought iron and weigh many tons. A mas¬ 
sive cross head is armed with stout steel cutters like teeth, set in rows 
at the outer ends and projecting downwards. A small guide hole being 
first bored into the earth, these larger tools are made to follow and en¬ 
large it. At the same time the shaft is lined by a water-tight curbing or 
cylinder of wrought iron, made in short sections one bolted upon another 
by means of flanges, which are suspended and descend as the shaft pro¬ 
gresses. The lower section is made double, and the space is so filled in with 
moss or tow that when the boring is completed and the weight of the iron 
curb or lining is allowed to rest upon the moss it is pressed outwards 
against the sides of the shaft, and thus, by making a tight joint, excludes 
the water from the shaft. It will be observed that the whole of the lining, 
including the double portion and packing at the bottom, is kept sus¬ 
pended as the boring progresses, and is not allowed to rest upon the bot¬ 
tom until the desired stratum is reached and a firm foundation is cut in 
it by the boring tool. During the whole operation the shaft is full of 
water, and it is not pumped out until the lining is finally secured in the 
shaft. 

Two pits have been sunk in this way at St. Arold, through very watery 
ground, and with a very great saving of time and expense. In one of 
the pits the curb was fixed at a depth of five hundred and twenty-three 
feet, and the coal was reached at a depth of one thousand and thirty-six 
feet. It is probable that this ingenious method of sinking shafts may 
be adopted with advantage in the lower portions of the Mount Diablo 
coal field, where the strata are full of water and are not too hard to be 
easily bored. The credit of the invention and perfection of this method 
is due to Messrs. Kind & Chudron, and they received a grand prize. 

MACHINES FOR EXTRACTION. 

Hoisting engines and apparatus were found only in the French and 
Belgian sections. In the former, the most conspicuous was a machine 
with double vertical engines, and the winding reels or bobbins high in 
the air above them. This was from the establishment of Quillae, at An- 
zin, which has turned out a large number of powerful engines of similar 
construction for the French coal mines. They claim to have supplied 
sixty-seven machines, of the aggregate horse-power of seven thousand 
and twelve, since eighteen hundred and fifty-six. One of five hundred 
horse power was for pumping. The cylinders of the engine in the Ex¬ 
hibition were about three feet diameter and six feet stroke. They were 
connected directly with the bobbin shaft above, without gearing. This 
shaft carried two bobbins, twenty-two feet in diameter, intended for flat 
wire or hetnp cables. The wooden arms of these bobbins are united at 
their extremities by segments of iron. The engineer stands on an ele¬ 
vated platform and looks under and between the bobbins towards the 
mouth of the shaft. The movement is controlled by link motion, and 
the brakes are operated by steam. The poppet heads, pulleys and frame 
work, to be placed over the mouth of the shaft, together with the cages, 
guides and wagons, were shown in connection with the engines, and the 
whole formed "the most complete and attractive looking hoisting appa- 


80 


ratus exhibited; but it is questionable if this vertical arrangement is so 
desirable as the horizontal. Another hoisting apparatus in the Belgian 
section had the bobbins placed below the cylinders, the shaft being on 
the level of the floor, and the cylinders inverted above it. The engineer 
of the machine stands above the whole, and has an unobstructed view 
of the shaft and the pulleys above it. 

There were also two or three beautifully finished horizontal hoisting 
engines, all of them double and direct acting upon the bobbin shaft. 
Some of the bobbins were provided with light wrought iron segments to 
connect the spokes. Most of the machines had friction bands sus¬ 
pended around a central or outer wheel, made specially for the purpose. 
These bands were operated by steam. Other machines had brakes 
instead of metal bands. These were merely segments of wood set in 
iron frames and drawn forcibly against the opposite sides of a friction 
wheel, on the main shaft, by means of levers also operated by steam. 
The power varies from eighty to one hundred and fifty horses. 

These machines all had a very light, airy appearance, and wore some¬ 
what in contrast with another machine shown in the Park, in the build¬ 
ing devoted to the productions of the great establishment of Creuzot. 
This was made for the coal mines of Blanzy, to perform very heavy 
work, and is very strong and solid. It is horizontal, double engines and 
direct-acting. The cylinders are very long, and are placed some twenty 
feet apart. The bobbins are for flat cable and are twenty feet in diam¬ 
eter; the spokes are not connected by metal rims, but are left discon¬ 
nected at the outer ends. There is a separate steam cylinder for work¬ 
ing the breaks. It is a notable fact that winding and pumping engines 
have been made by Quillac, at Anzin, France, for English coal mines in 
Newcastle, and the explanation is, simphq that the French are able to 
furnish satisfactory and highly finished engines at lower prices than 
English establishments require. 

/ 

/ 

CABLES. 

Some very heavy and well made flat wire cables were shown in the 
French and Belgian sections. In the Belgian, some were made of ordi¬ 
nary round wire cables, one inch in diameter, and united side by side, 
and were long enough for mines two thousand eight hundred feet deep. 
It is claimed that this is an improvement over the usual mode of laying 
the flat cables, and that it permits more rapid winding. I did not see^ 
however, any better samples of light wire rope work than those shown 
in the United States section by A. S. Ilallidie & Co., of San Francisco. 

CAGES AND WAGONS. 


The system of using cages of several stories, so as to take wagons one 
above another, is being abandoned, as much as possible, for the broad 
cage, to receive the wagons upon the same level. This, of course, neces¬ 
sitates a larger shaft, but the saving of time, trouble and,wear is very 
great over the other method. 

Nicholas Libotte, of Belgium, exhibited some very well made ca^es, 
made wholly of steel, intended for the mines of a coal company near 
Liege, Belgium. They are made to take two tiers of wagons, three on 
each, or six wagons in all. I lie cage weighs one thousand two hundred 
and sixty-eight kilogrammes (about two thousand five hundred and thirty- 
six pounds), and the parachute attachment three hundred and twenty- 





81 


eiiiht pounds. Another cage is constructed to take six wagons, one 
above another—total weight, including parachute, three thousand one 
hundred and twenty-four pounds. The wagons intended for this cage 
are about six feet long and two feet six inches wide. The guides in the 
shafts are intended to be made of wood, and the slides or bearings on 
the cage are made of steel. All the cages shown were provided with 
safety parachutes, not differing particularly from those already often 
described. The great advantage of these steel cages is their lightness, 
compared with those made of iron of equal strength. 

CRUSHING AND DRESSING MACHINES. 

The only ore crushers shown were Blake’s rock breaker, and the well 
known Cornish rollers; the former, being exhibited by the assignees of 
the patent in France, was in the French section, and received a gold 
medal. The same parties showed self-acting and discharging jigs, modi¬ 
fications of the Cornish machine, with the grates fixed and the water 
forced up through them and the ore by a plunger. These are made 
entirely of cast iron, and were operating very well upon lead ore. A 
table for dressing fine ore was made of an endless belt of canvas, which 
moves in a direction opposite to the flow of the ore, and at the same time 
receives a shock or percussion. With the exception of the percussion, 
the arrangement is very similar to one tried by Mr. Williams, at the 
Benton mill, some years ago, and abandoned as unsatisfactory. 

11 





CHAPTER VIII. 


I 


WINES AND FERMENTED DRINKS, ALCOHOL, BEET ROOT 
SUGAR, VINEGAR, MUSTARD AND CHICCORY. 


WINES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The display of wines and fermented liquors of all kinds, from various 
parts of the world, was enormous, as will appear from the following 
enumeration : 


Countries. 


France. 

Spain. 

Portugal. 

Algeria ... 

Prussia. 

Switzerland. 

Italy. 

Brazil . 

South Australia and Victoria 
The United States. 


Exhibitors. 


GOO 

316 

121 

142 

119 

82 


479 

85 

32 

33 


With this vast amount of work before the Jury, it is not surprising 
that the wines of the United States, including those of California, did 
not receive more attention. In the United States exhibit, besides the 
Californian wines, there were samples of the sparkling and still Catawba 
wines and brandies from Cincinnati, Ohio ; red and white wines from 
Pennsylvania, sparkling Catawba from grapes grown in the State of 
New York, and other wines from Ohio, Indiana and Missouri. Honor- 
able mention was made of the sparkling wine sent by the Buena Vista 
Vinicultural Society of Sonoma, R. N. Van Brunt, Secretary, San Fran- 
























83 




cisco, which appeared to have been much liked, as two cases of it were 
nearly consumed in the trials by the experts. 

In order to remedy the disappointment of the United States wine ex¬ 
hibitors, the United States Commission appointed a Committee to 
specially examine American wines and make a report. This Committee 
consisted of Mr. Flagg of New York, Marshall P. Wilder of Boston, 
and Dr. Jacob Thompson. The American wines were placed in their 
charge, and were tasted from time to time. The report of this Commit¬ 
tee will be made to Congress, with the other reports of the Commission, 
and will probably be printed at some distant day. 

Complaint has been made about the placing of these wines—that they 
were heated and fermented, etc. This is probably a mistake, for in 
July and August there were no signs of fermentation. It is true that 
the wines were not put into the coolest possible place, but the flues 
spoken of by some were several feet distant, and would hardly be 
noticed by most persons. The bottles were placed cork up, except the 
champagnes, as was the case with the other exhibits throughout the 
Exhibition. 

This habit of heating the wine recalls the discovery made by the 
French chemist, Pasteur, of the existence of invisible vegetable growths 
in wines, which cause fermentation or disease, destructive of the good 
qualities. This discovery was made by the aid of the microscope, and 
is another example of the practical value of the instrument. M. Pas¬ 
teur has also shown that the germs of this vegetable growth can be 
destroyed by simply heating the wine in closed vessels to a tempera¬ 
ture of sixty degrees centigrade, for only a few minutes. Numberless 
experiments have confirmed the discovery, and have proved at the same 
time that the operation does not injure the flavor of the wine^but, on 
the contrary, very often improves it. I had the pleasure of tasting 
some of the wines which M. Pasteur had treated, and found the differ-,, 
ence very marked in favor of the wine that had been heated, except in 
one instance. These wines were brought by M. Pasteur to a chemical 
entertainment at the laboratory of the illustrious St. Claire Deville. 

The researches of Pasteur have been published in a beautiful volume, 
by Victor Masson, and are entitled “Etudes sur le Vin.” 

■ The same chemist is now busily engaged in investigating the disease 
of the silkworm, by the aid of the microscope. He finds that the germs 
of the disease may be detected in the eggs. Diseased eggs may there¬ 
fore be thrown away. His method consists merely in grinding up 
samples of the eggs in a mortar, and placing a little of the paste under 
the lens. The same method has been extended to the testing of the 
bodies of the millers that lay the eggs. 

WINE AND FERMENTED DRINKS IN FRANCE. 

The following valuable data upon the product and consumption of 
wines and alcohol in France are extracted from the Introduction to 
Class Seventy-three, in the Official Catalogue:* 

“ Viticultural production is one of the most important in French agri¬ 
culture. It extends over two millions two hundred and eighty-seven 


* This Introduction was prepared by Comte Herve de Kergolay, President, and Louis Baral, 
Delegate, of Class 73. 






84 


thousand eight hundred and twenty-one hectares,* situated in eighty- 
one departments, the yield being on an average fifty million hectolitres, 
of a total value to the producers of seven hundred and fifty million 
francs. In eighteen hundred and sixty-five the quantity reached sixty- 
eight millions nine hundred and forty-two thousand nine hundred and 
thirty-one hectolitres; and, considering the development that has taken 
place during the last few years, it is certain that unless checked by the 
grape disease (the oidium) the amount of fifty million hectolitres will 
generally be exceeded. Vineyard property is excessively subdivided. 
It is held by no less than two millions two hundred thousand proprie¬ 
tors, so that each property on an average scarcely exceeds one hectare. 
The cost of cultivation varies considerably, according to the season 
and the rate of wages in the various distiicts of France. They range 
from one hundred and fifty francs to five hundred and seventy francs 
per hectare, which gives for the rate of wages from one franc and ninety 
centimes to four 1'rancs and even five francs per day. The trade in 
wine is of course a very considerable one. The City of Paris alone 
consumes annually about three millions six hundred thousand hectares; 
that is to say, an average of one hundred and eighty-three litres (a litre 
is rather more than one and three fourths pints) per head for each 
inhabitant, and this consumption would certainly go on increasing 
largely if it were not impeded by the present system of taxes, and by 
their heavy rates. The city', or octroi , duties, for instance, exceed in 
amount the value of the greater part of the wine on which they are 
placed. Exportation increases every year, under the influence of the 
new treaty of commerce. In the year eighteen hundred and sixty-six 
the exports amounted to three millions one hundred and ninety-four 
thousand one hundred and four hectolitres, of the value of three hun¬ 
dred and eight millions five hundred and two thousand francs, while 
in eighteen hundred and fifty-one the total value did not exceed one 
hundred and ninety-five millions nine hundred and twenty-three thou¬ 
sand francs. Thus in five years there has been an increase to the 
extent of sixty per cent. The value of the exports of spirits and 
liquors amounted in eighteen hundred and sixty-six to ninety-three 
millions nine hundred and seventy thousand francs, while in eighteen 
hundred and sixty-one it had not reached over fifty-two millions nine 
hundred and sixty-six thousand francs. It had, therefore, increased to 
the extent of eighty per cent, in the same period. The total amount 
of the exports of wine and spirits in eighteen hundred and sixty- 
six was, then, four hundred and two millions four hundred and 
seventy-two thousand francs. In eighteen hundred and sixty-six the 
prices were far below those of eighteen hundred and sixty-five. This 
reduction of price, combined with the changes introduced into the 
English tariff, which made the duty on wine introduced in bottle the 
same as that imported in the wood, has increased the exports of wine 
from France to England from ninety-four thousand three hundred and 
eighty-five hectolitres to two hundred and five thousand nine hundred 
and ninety-two hectolitres; that is to say, an augmentation of one hun¬ 
dred and twenty per cent, between eighteen hundred and sixty-five and 
eighteen hundred and sixty-six; and it is hoped that this consumption 
will overcome the obstacles which arise out of the organization of trade 
in England and the great number of local taxes. 


* A hectare—Hourly two and a half acres ; a hectolitre —twenty-two and a half gallons. 








85 


“ Sixty-five Departments have taken part in the Exhibition of eighteen 
hundred and sixty-seven ; they arc represented by six hundred exhib¬ 
itors. Unfortunately, the exhibition of the great growths of the Bor¬ 
delais is far from, being complete As to Burgundy, the Chamber of 
Commerce and the Agricultural Societies and Committees have zealously 
competed in the organization of a most remarkable exhibition. Two 
thousand four hundred bottles of wines were sent from Burgundy, as fol¬ 
lows : 


Districts. 


Bottles. 


From Villefranche. 

From Macon and La Chapelle de Guinchay 

From Chalon. 

From Beaune.,. 

From Dijon. 

From Avallon. 

From A fixer re. 

From Yonnerre. 

From Joigny. 

•- 9 - 


600 

400 

200 

400 

200 

50 

400 

400 

50 


“Various processes have been proposed and experimented on recently 
with the view to the improvement and management of the fermentation 
of wine, and particularly to make it capable of bearing changes of tem¬ 
perature and more especially long sea voyages; but the most important 
improvement to be noticed is certainly that of an illustrious chemist, M. 
Pasteur. [Already noticed ] 

“ The production of alcohol in France has averaged, during the last ten 
years, one million one hundred and twenty-four thousand eight hundred 
and seventy-two hectolitres; but the increase has latterly been very 
considerable. Thus the season of eighteen hundred and sixty-three 
and eighteen hundred and sixty-four produced one million two hundred 
and seventy-eight thousand one hundred and ninety-two hectolitres; 
eighteen hundred and sixty-four and eighteen hundred and sixty-five, 
one million three hundred and five thousand nine hundred and five; 
eighteen hundred and sixty-five and eighteen hundred and sixty-six, one 
million seven hundred and eighty-nine thousand four hundred and sev¬ 
enty-four, which is divided as follows: 


Distilled. 

Hectolitres. 

Distillation of wine, 12,000,000 hectolitres, giving in alcohol. 

1,010,166 

283,022 

307,409 

79.648 

53,232 

55,997 





v a 110 us buuoidiitto... 

• 

1,789,474 

















































86 


“ The average annual production of cider during the past ten years 
has been nine million fifty-seven thousand five hundred and seventy hec¬ 
tolitres; in eighteen hundred and sixty-six it was eleven million three 
hundred and twent} r -three thousand seven hundred and forty-five hecto¬ 
litres, and it increases ever } 7 year. The railways contribute largely to 
this result by transporting rapidly the cider apples from the place of 
production to the centres of consumption. The consequence is that the 
price of apples has been augmented, and that the farmers find it worth 
their while to extend their plantations. The consumption of cider is 
also larger than it was, because in many districts where nothing but 
water was drunk, they now make use of cider or beer. The best cider 
in France is made in the neighborhood of Calvados and La Manche, but 
it is desirable that the proprietors should bestow the same amount of 
care upon the cultivation and manufacture as the wine growers. 

“ We have previously said that the consumption of beer increases con¬ 
siderably in several parts of France, where its use was very restricted a 
few T 3 'ears since. In other localities its use extends even where wine or 
cider is the common drink of the country. The manufacture has made 
great progress, and we no longer go to Germany or England for light, 
agreeable or wholesome heer. 

“This development of the brewing trade has produced a similar prog¬ 
ress in the cultivation of hops in the Northern and Eastern Depart¬ 
ments, and the Vosges and Alsace. At the present time French hops 
are in as great demand as the best Bavarian hops, aftd they might pass 
for them in commerce.” 


BEET ROOT SUGAR. 

Beet root sugar in France is made chiefly in the Northern Depart¬ 
ments The product is about two hundred million of kilogrammes, and 
about the same quantity is imported from the French and foreign colo¬ 
nies. The consumption is about two hundred and fifty million kilo¬ 
grammes and the difference is exported. The manufacture and refining of 
beet root sugar has made great progress since eighteen hundred and 
fifty-seven, and it has consequently been produced at a lower price. The 
customs duty upon beet sugar is forty-two francs per one hundred kilo¬ 
grammes. 

The principal improvements in the manufacture of sugar are: The 
process of double carbonization, triple action vacuum pans, the use of 
centrifugal machines; and in refining, the improvements in the system of 
bleaching, and the employment of centrifugal machines. 

Within the last five years beet root sugar of superior quality, made 
by the aid of the improved apparatus of Gail & Co., has been used in 
the manufacture of confectionery. Sugar of this kind is worth about 
one hundred and seventeen francs per one hundred kilogrammes. 

A great variety of sugar making apparatus was exhibited—such as 
machines for removing stones, rasping machines, mills, presses, tissues 
for sacks, filtering presses, apparatus for evaporating the juice in vacuo, 
either single, double or triple. There was also a variety of centrifugal 
machines and furnaces for reheating the animal charcoal used to decol¬ 
orize the solutions. One of the rasping machines shown by M. Cham- 
ponnois makes seven hundred revolutions a minute and rasps over 
thirteen thousand pounds of beets in an hour. 

The stimulus given to the production of beet roots in Prussia and else¬ 
where by the large and cheap production of potash salts suitable for 








87 


manure, at Stassfurt, has already been noticed in the chapter upon use¬ 
ful minerals. 

A novel practical application of endosmose to the concentration of sac¬ 
charine liquids has been made by Dubrunfaut, and Messrs. Carmichel & 
Co.,refiners of sugar and distillers, at St. Clair de la Tour-du-pin, exhibited 
an apparatus for the purpose, which is stated to have been in successful 
operation at their establishment for three, years. It was not accompa¬ 
nied by a description, but its mode of action was quite plain to those 
familiar, by experiment in the laboratory, with the laws of endosmose 
and exosmose. The apparatus appears like a great cubical box about 
four feet square, but it is made up of a series of sheets of vegetable 
parchment stretched upon frames and placed side by side, so that they 
are not more than one inch apart. By passing through these membranes 
the solutions are gradually concentrated. This is called the Osmogene 
process. 

VINEGAR, MUSTARD, CIIICCORY. 

The best vinegar in France is made from the white wines of the Loire 
and of the Charente. The preparation consists in fermenting these wines 
by heat applied by steam or otherwise under reservoirs constructed for 
the process. Machinery is used.to transfer the liquid from one vessel to 
another. The researches of Pasteur have thrown light upon many 
points which were before obscure. The annual production is about one 
million five hundred thousand hectolitres, worth, at twenty francs, ahout 
thirty million francs or six million dollars. The price varies with the 
season, from five francs to twenty francs per hectolitre. 

The annual product of mustard in France is about six hundred and 
fifty tons, worth one hundred and fifty thousand franos. Mixed with 
condiments and vinegar, and ground in mills, it is made ready for the 
table, and the annual value of the production is estimated at two million 
francs. It is cultivated chiefly" in the Northern Departments. 

The preparation and use of chicopry as a substitute for ooffee was a 
result of the continental blockade, but its use has continued and is 
increasing. It is cultivated in the northern part of France, and in the 
Haut and Bas Rbin. 

The green roots are worth from four and a half to five franos the one 
hundred kilogrammes. They are roasted and dried in large establish¬ 
ments, and are reduced to powder. The slioed and dried roots are worth 
from eighteen to twenty-four francs. The prepared powder is worth 
from forty to fifty francs the one hundred kilogrammes. The annual 
product is estimated to be seven thousand tons and to be worth from 
three million five hundred thousand to four million francs, 


\ 



4 


88 


i . y 


LIST OF EXHIBITORS 


OF OBJECTS FROM CALIFORNIA AT THE PARIS EXPOSITION. 


Names and Articles Exhibited. 


Group. 


Class. 


Mission Woollen Mills, Sun Francisco, Lazard Freres, 
Agents. Four cases of woollen goods, manufac¬ 
tured in California from California wool. 


C. H. Harrison, San Francisco. Centrifugal pump. 


C. E. Watkins, San Francisco. Series of twenty-eight 
large photographic views of Yosemite Valley, and 
two of the Big Trees of the Mariposa Grove. 

Lawrence & Houseworth, San Francisco. Twenty-six 
large photographs of Yosemite Valley and of the 
Great Trees, and three hundred stereoscopic views 
of different localities in California. 


Edward Visciier, San Francisco. One case containing 
six portfolios of views in California and Washoe... 

A. S. IIallidie & Co., San Francisco. Samples of wire 
rope, round and flat, and iron and copper sash cords 
of California manufacture.%. 


Pacific Glass Works, San Francisco. Specimens of Cal¬ 
ifornia made <Bass bottles. . . 


John D. Boyd, San Francisco. One highly finished orna¬ 
mental door, made of wood grown in California. 


John D. Boyd, San Francisco Specimens of the wood of 
the Madrona, or California laurel. 

John Reed, San Francisco. Premium tank lifeboat model, 
four feet long. 

San Lorenzo Paper Mills. Varieties of paper made at 
the company’s mills in Santa Cruz, California.. 


Standard Soap Company. Specimens of California made 
soap and washing powders.. 


IV 


II 


II 


II 


V 

III 

III 

V 

VI 


30 


9 


9 


40 


16 


14 


41 


66 























89 


w 


t 




Names and Articles Exhibited. 


Group. 


Class. 


D. L. Perkins, San Francisco and Oakland. Collection of 
seeds grown in California, and a photograph of Cal¬ 
ifornia vegetables. (Donated to the Imperial Gar¬ 
den of Acclimatation.).. 


YII 


J. W.H. Campbell, San Francisco. One case—about one 
hundred and twenty pounds—California high mixed 
wheat. (Donated to Boyal Agricultural Society, 
England). 


YII 


67 


67 


J. D. Peters, San Joaquin County. One box containing 
about thirty pounds'of wheat. 


YII 


Buena Yista Yinicultural Society (byB. N. Yan Brunt, 
Secretary). Cases of sparkling wine made from 
grapes grown at the Society’s vineyard, Sonoma 
County, California, eighteen hundred and sixty-: 
five.| YII 


C. H. Le Franc, New Almaden Yineyard. Four cases of 
red and white wines made in San Jose, California... 

Sansevain Brothers, Los Angeles. One case of Cali-: 
fornia wine.! 


YII 

YII 


Kohler & Frohling. California wines.. 

M. Keller, Los Angeles. Four cases of California wines. 

A. Fenkhausen, San Francisco. Three cases California 
wine and bitters. . 


YII 

YII 

YII 


Taylor & Bendel, San Francisco. One case of stomach 
bitters . 


YII 


Dr. J. Pignis, San Francisco. Six cases of California and 
Nevada minerals and ores. (Donated to the School 
of Mines, Paris). 

California State Agricultural Society. Yolumes of 
the Society’s reports for distribution. 

William P. Blake, San Francisco. Collection of Cali¬ 
fornia minerals and ores. (See list of minerals and 
ores.). 

Drs. Harkness and Frey, Sacramento. Large mass of 
silver ore from Blind Springs, Mono County, Cali¬ 
fornia, weighing about one hundred pounds. 


Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 


67 


73 

73 

73 

73 

73 

* 

73 

73 


40 

40 


40 


40 


12 













































LIST OF MINERALS AND ORES 


SENT TO THE PARIS EXHIBITION FROM CALIFORNIA BY THE STATE 

COMMISSIONER. 


Note. —The names of donors of specimens for the collection are given after the names of the 
specimens. When not otherwise stated, the specimens were from the private collection of the 
Commissioner, or were collected by him for the Exhibition. 


Exhibit. 


No. 


Bituminous coal, Pittsburg mine, Mt. Diablo, California. 

Bituminous coal, Independence and Eureka mine (710 feet deep) Mt. 

Diablo, California. Greenhood & Newbaur. 

Brown coal, Cowlitz River, Oregon. 

Bituminous shale, Isthmus of Nicaragua, New Granada. 

Native sulphur, Tehama County, California. R. G. Sneath. 

Native sulphur, Colusa County, California. 

Sulphur, manufactured, Colusa County, California. 

Native sulphur, Canada Larga, Santa Barbara County, California... 
Rock salt, native, in large crystals, Virgin River, Arizona. Wine- 

gar & Shaw. 

Rock salt, manufactured, Los Angeles County, California. Wine- 

gar & Shaw. 

Rock salt, ground in water, Los Angeles County, California. Wine- 

gar & Shaw.;. 

Rock salt, kiln dried, Los Angeles County, California. Winegar & 

Shaw... 

Salt from Salt Springs. Multnomah County, Oregon. II. C. Victor 

and F. A. Davis.....?. 

Cinnabar, New Idria, Fresno County, California. 



Red oxide of copper, Arizona lode, Arizona 
Red oxide and native copper, Arizona lode, Arizona. 

Red oxide and malachite, Camanche claim, near Prescott, Arizona... 
Vitreous copper ore, Mineral Ilill, Aubrey City, Arizona. J. F 
Green man. 


Blue silicate of copper, Mineral Ilill, Aubrey City, Arizona. J. F. 
Greenman. 


Variegated copper ore, Del Norte County, California. 

Copper ore, Plumas County, California. 

Yellow copper ore, Billy Rogers’ lode, California. 


2 

3 

4 
.5 
6 

7 

8 

i 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

































91 


I 


Exhibit. 


No. 


Yellow copper ore, Last Chance mine, near Zinc House, California.. 

-Native copper, Del Norte County, California . 

Yellow copper ore in slate, Keystone mine, Copperopoiis, California 
x el low copper ore, concentrated, Keystone mine, Copperopoiis, Cal¬ 
ifornia.;. 1 

Yellow copper ore, Napoleon mine, Calaveras County, California”!! 
Yellow copper ore, Newton mine, Amador County, California. Cab¬ 
inet State Agricultural Society. 

Yellow copper ore, Cosmopolitan lode, Genesee Yailey,”Plumas 

County, California, Cabinet State Agricultural Society. 

Copper ore, Superior copper lode, Lights’ Canon, PI umas Count}’, 

California. Cabinet State Agricultural Society. 

Copper ore, Peacock lode, Fresno County, California. R. H. Rogers 

Vitreous copper ore, Mineral Point, Arizona. 

Vitreous copper ore, Gem lode, Arizona. 

Copper ore, Newton mine, Amador County, California. 

Copper ore, Newton mine, Amador County, California. 

Cinnabar, with carbonate of lime, Hot Springs, Colusa County, Cali¬ 
fornia. Cabinet State Agricultural Society. 

Cinnabar, with carbonate of lime, Idaho. 

Cinnabar, with carbonate of lime, Idaho.. 

Cinnabar, with carbonate of lime, Idaho. 

Silver ore (rich), Great Eastern lode, Austin, Nevada. Shoshone 

Company . 

Silver ore (rich), Great Eastern Lode, Austin, Nevada. Shoshone 

Company. 

Silver ore (croppings), Great Eastern lode, Austin, Nevada. Sho¬ 
shone- Company. 

Silver ore, Silver Sprout mine, Kearsarge District, California. 

Silver ore, Silver Sprout mine, Kearsarge District, California. 

Silver ore, Kearsarge mine, Kearsarge District, California. 

Silver ore, Kearsarge mine, Kearsarge District, California. 

Argentiferous galena, Kearsarge mine, Kearsarge District, Califor¬ 
nia. 

Silver ore, Buena Vista claim, Inyo Mountains, Inyo County, Cali¬ 
fornia.. 

Silver ore, San Rafael mine, Inyo Mountains, Inyo County, Califor¬ 
nia... 

Silver ore, Magenta lode, Macedonian District, San Bernardino 

County, California. R. D’Heureuse. 

Silver ore with galena, Chicago mine, Shasta County, California. 

Silver ore with galena, Chicago mine, Shasta County, California. 

Silver ore with galena, Chicago mine, Shasta County, California. 

Silver ore with zincblende, Chicago mine, Shasta County, California.. 

Silver ore, Diana claim, Blind Springs, Mono County, California. 

Silver ore, Rockingham claim, Blind Springs, Mono County, Cali¬ 
fornia. . 

Silver ore, Josephine claim, Blind Springs, Mono County, California. 
Silver ore, Camanche claim, Blind Springs, Mono County, California 
Silver ore (rich large mass), Camanche claim, Blind Springs, Mono 
County, California. Dr. Ilarkness and Dr. Frey, Sacramento. 


26 

27 

28 


29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

.50 

51 

52 


53 

51 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 
61 

62 


I 





















































92 


Exhibit. 


No. 


Argentiferous and auriferous copper ore, Pahtah District, Nevada... 
Silver ore (rich), Pocotillo Series, Silver Peak or Ked Mountain 

District, Nevada.!. 

Silver ore, Antelope lode, Esmeralda District, Nevada. Cabinet 

State Agricultural Society. 

Silver ore (very rich), Mexican mine, Virginia City, Nevada. 

Silver ore, near La Paz, Arizona. 

Silver ore, near La Paz, Arizona.'.. 

Silver, lead and copper ore, Eclipse lode, Inyo Mountains, California 
Silver, lead and copper ore, Eclipse lode, Inyo Mountains, California 
Silver and copper ore, Green Monster lode, Inyo Mountains, Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Silver and copper ore, Green Monster lode, Inyo Mountains, Cali¬ 
fornia... 

Argentiferous lead ore, Stevens’ lode, Cosa District, Inyo Mountains, 

California. 

Argentiferous lead ore, St. Helena mine, Nevada. Sherman Day... 
Argentiferous lead ore, Alvarez claim, Nevada. Sherman Day...... 

Argentiferous lead ore, Murphy claim, Nevada. Sherman Day. 

Sulphuret of antimony, Christmas Gift lode, Telescope District, Cal¬ 
ifornia. 

Sulphuret of antimony, Sierra County, near Downieville, California. 

Crossman & Cochrane. 

Cobalt and nickel ore (Danaite), Meadow Lake, Nevada County, 

California. E. C. Gaskill. 

Cobalt and nickel ore, Meadow Lake, Nevada County, California. 

E. C Gaskill.. 

Cobalt and nickel ore (Danaite), Meadow Lake, Nevada County, Cal • 

ifornia. E. C. Gaskill. 

Lead and zinc ore, Williams and Killinger, Shasta County, Califor¬ 
nia. Cabinet State Agricultural Society... 

Lead ore (galena), Castle Dome District, Arizona. 

Argentiferous galena, Eclipse claim, Inyo Mountains, Inyo County, 

California. 

Galena, yellow copper, etc., Squaw Valley, Nevada County, Cali¬ 
fornia. Cabinet State Agricultural Society. 

Gold ore, Long Tom mine, Kern County, California. 

Auriferous quartz, Long Tom mine, Kern County, California. 

Auriferous quartz, Long Tom mine, Kern County, California. 

Auriferous quartz, Long Tom mine, Kern County, California. 

Sulphurets, Long Tom mine, Kern County, California. 

Gold ore, Joe Walker lode, Walker Basin, Kern County, California 



Gold ore, French Friend claim, Havilah, Kern County, California... 

Gold ore, Mammoth lode, Kern Kiver, Kern County, California. 

Gold ore, Mammoth lode, Kern Kiver, Kern County, California. 

Gold ore, Mammoth lode, Kern Eiver, Kern County, California. 

Gold quartz, Pine Tree vein, Mariposa Estate, California. 

Gold quartz, Pino Tree vein, Mariposa Estate, California. 


G3 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 
81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

87 

88 

89 

90 

91 

92 

93 

94 

95 

96 

97 

98 

99 
100 














































93 


Exhibit. 


No. 


Gold-bearing quartz, Princeton vein, Mariposa County, California... 

Gold quartz, App’s mine, Tuolumne County, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, App’s mine, Tuolumne County, California*.*.*... 

Gold-bearing quartz, Bacon mine, Tuolumne County, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Chapparal Hill mine, Tuolumne County, Cali¬ 
fornia... .. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Raw Hide Ranch, Tuolumne County, Cali¬ 
fornia.......... 

Gold-bearing quartz, Monte Cristo mine, Tuolumne County, Cali¬ 
fornia.. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Buchanan mine, Tuolumne County, California. 
Gold-bearing quartz, Consuelo mine, Tuolumne County, California.. 
Gold-bearing quartz and galena, Soulsb} 7 mine, Tuolumne County, 
California. 

Gold-bearing sulphurets, Soulsby mine, Tuolumne County, Califor¬ 
nia..:..... 

Auriferous sulphurets, Gilson mine, Tuolumne County, California... 
Gold-bearing quartz and sulphurets, Coney mine, Arpador County, 

California.. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Keystone mine, Amador County* California... 
Gold-bearing quartz, Hayward’s mine, Sutter County, California.... 
Gold-bearing quartz and sulphurets, Volcano, Amador County, Cal¬ 
ifornia. Cabinet State Agricultural Society. 

Gold ore, yellow copper, etc., Golden Eagle mine, Volcano, Amador 

County, California. Cabinet State Agricultural Society... 

Gold ore, yellow copper, etc., Golden Eagle mine, Volcano, Amador 

County, California. Cabinet State Agricultural Society. 

Gold in quartz, Carson claim, Calaveras County, California. 

Gold in quartz, Carson claim, Calaveras County, California. 

Gold in quartz and magnesite, Winter’s mine, Angel’s Camp, Cala¬ 
veras County, California. 

Native gold in quartz and magnesite, Winter’s mine, Angel’s Camp, 

Calaveras County, California. Hr. Hill. 

Gold-bearing magnesite, Slocum, Bell & Co.’s claim, Angel’s Camp, 

Calaveras County, California. 

Gold bearing rock, Cameron gold mine, Angel’s Camp, Calaveras 

County, California. Peter Cameron, 1861 ... 

Gold-bearing sulphurets, Angel’s Camp,-Calaveras County, Califor¬ 
nia. Slocum, Bell and others, 1861 . 

Gold-bearing slate, South Carolina claim, Calaveras County, Cali¬ 
fornia... 

Gold-bearing quartz, Davidson mine, El Dorado County, California 
Gold-bearing quartz, Davidson mine, El Dorado County, California 
Gold-bearing sulphurets, Golden Eagle mine, Amador County, Cali¬ 
fornia. L. W. Coe... 

Gold-bearing quartz, Montezuma lode, El Dorado County, Califor¬ 
nia. Cabinet State Agricultural Society.. 

Gold-bearing quartz and sulphurets, Captain Mallet’s mine, Placer 

County, California... 

Gold-bearing quartz and sulphurets, Captain Mallet’s mine, Placer 
county, California. 


101 

102 

103 

104 

105 

106 

107 

108 

109 

110 

111 

112 

113 

114 

115 

116 

117 

118 

119 

120 

121 

122 

123 

124 

125 

126 

127 

128 

129 

130 

131 

132 











































Exhibit. 


No. 




Gold-bearing quartz and sulphurets, Lady Lincoln mine, Placer 

County, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz and sulphurets, Lady Lincoln mine, Placer 

County, California. 

Gold and silver-bearing quartz, Bowlder lode, Placer County, Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Gold and silver-bearing quartz, Bowlder lode, Placer County, Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Gold and silver-bearing quartz, Bowlder lode, Placer County, Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Mill lode, Placer County, California,. 

Gold-bearing quartz, St. Lawrence mine, Placer County, California. 
Gold-bearing quartz, St. Lawrence mine, Placer County, California. 
Gold-bearing quartz, 'St. Lawrence mine, Placer Count} T . California. 
Gold-bearing quartz and sulphurets, North Star lode, Placer County, 

California.:.... 

Gold-bearing quartz, Mexican No. 1, Porbestown, Butte County. 

California. # .... 

Gold-bearing quartz, Mexican No. 1, Porbestown, Butte County, 

California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Mexican No. 1, Porbestown, Butte County, 

California.:. 

Gold-bearing sulphurets, Mexican No. 2, Porbestown, Butte County, 

California. 

Gold-bearing sulphurets, Mexican No. 2, Forbestown, Butte County, 

California. 

Gold-bearing sulphurets, Mexican No. 2, Porbestown, Butte Count}’, 

California... 

Gold-bearing quartz and sulphurets, Mexican No. 2, Forbestown. 

Butte Count} T , California. 

Gold-bearing quartz and sulphurets, Mexican No. 2, Porbestown, 

Butte County; California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, decomposed, Mexican No. 2, Porbestown, Butte 

County, California. 

Gold-bearing sulphurets and quartz, Sulphuret lode, Forbestown, 

Butte County, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Shakspeare lode, Forbestown, Butte County, 

California.. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Roberts’ lode, Forbestown, Butte County, Cal¬ 
ifornia. 

Gold-bearing sulphurets, Mexican No. 2, Forbestown, Butte County, 

California.. 

Gold-bearing sulphurets (clean), Mexican No. 1, Forbestown, Butte 

County, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Jefferson mine, Brown’s Valley, Yuba County, 

California.... 

Gold-bearing quartz, Jefferson mine, Brown’s Valley, Yuba County. 

California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Jefferson mine, Brown’s Valley, Yuba County 
California. 4 


133 

131 

135 

136 

137 

138 

139 

140 

141 

« 

142 

143 

144 

145 

146 

147 

148 

149 

150 

151 

152 

153 

154 

155 

156 

157 

158 

159 


> 


































95 




Exhibit. 


No. 


Gold-bearing quartz, Jefferson mine, Brown’s Valley, Yuba County, 
California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Jefferson mine, Brown’s Valley, Yuba County, 
California. 

Wall rock, Jefferson mine, Brown’s Valley, Yuba County, Califor¬ 
nia. 

Wall rock, Jefferson mine, Brown’s Valley, Yuba County, Califor¬ 
nia.. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Pennsylvania mine, Brown’s Valley, Yuba 

County, California. . 

Gold-bearing quartz, Pennsylvania mine, Brown’s Valley, Yuba 

County, California... 

Gold-bearing quartz, Pennsylvania' mine, Brown’s Valley, Yuba 

County, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra County, California.. 
Gold-bearing quartz, Sierra Buttes mine. Sierra County, California.. 
Gold-bearing quartz, Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra County (upper tun¬ 
nel), California.. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra County (upper tun¬ 
nel), Calfornia. 

Soft quartz (lowest level). Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra County, Cali¬ 
fornia..... 

Gold-bearing quartz (lowest level). Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra 

County, California.. 

Gold-bearing quartz (rich), third level, Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra 

County, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz (rich), third level, Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra 

County, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, with sulphurets, Rose lode, Sierra Buttes mine, 

Sierra County, California.;. 

Gold-bearing quartz (rich), Rose lode, Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra 

County, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz (rich), Rose lode, Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra 

County, California.-. > . 

Gold-bearing quartz (rich), Rose lode, Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra 

County, California. . 

Gold-bearing quartz (Tunnel No. 2), Rose lode, Sierra Buttes mine, 

Sierra County, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz (rich), Tunnel No. 2, Rose lode, Sierra Buttes 

mine, Sierra County, California. 

Gold-hearing quartz, Rose lode, Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra County, 

California... 

Gold-bearing quartz (Tunnel No. 3), Ariel lode, Sierra Buttes mine, 

Sierra County, California..... 

Gold-bearing quartz (very rich), Tunnel No. 3, Ariel lode, Sierra 

Buttes mine, Sierra County, California..... 

Soft gold quartz, Ariel lode, Sierra Buttes mine, California. ••••• 

Green rock, from the vein, Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra County, Cali¬ 
fornia...;.;.. 

Clean'sulphurets, from the tailings, Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra 

County, California. 


160 

161 

162 

163 

164 

165 

166 

167 

168 

169 

170 

171 

172 

173 

174 

175 

176 

177 

178 

179 

180 
181 
182 

183 

184 

185 

186 


\ 










































96 


Exhibit. 



Gold-bearing quartz, Independence gold mine, Sierra County, Cali¬ 
fornia... 

Gold-hearing quartz, Independence gold mine, Sierra County, Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Independence gold mine, Sierra County, Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Tailings (average), Sierra Buttes mine, Sierra County, California... 
Gold quartz (very rich), Barnhardt claim, near Sierra Buttes claim. 

Sierra County, California. 

Auriferous galena in quartz, Primrose mine, Sierra County, Califor¬ 
nia. Crossman & Cochrane, Downieville... 

Gold in quartz, Primrose mine, Ilog Canon, Sierra County, Califor¬ 
nia. Crossman & Cochrane. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Primrose mine, Sierra County, California. 

Crossman & Cochrane. 

Gold in quartz, Primrose mine, Sierra County, California. Cross¬ 
man & Cochrane. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Belzona mine, Ladies’ Canon, Sierra County, 

California. Crossman & Cochrane. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Four Hills, Sierra County, California. Cross¬ 
man & Cochrane.. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Four Hills, Sierra County, California. Cross- 

man & Cochrane.*.. 

Sulphuret of molybdenum in quartz, Sierra County, California. 

Crossman & Cochrane. 

Gold-bearing arsenical pyrites, Fac Simile mine, Sierra Count}', 

California. Crossman & Cochrane. 

Gold-bearing sulpburets (decomposed), near Sierra Buttes, Sierra 

County, California. Crossman & Cochrane. 

Sulphurets, Mexican mine, Downieville, Sierra County, California. 

Crossman & Cochrane. . . 

Yellow copper ore, Sierra County, California. Crossman & Coch¬ 
rane . 

Sulphuret of iron with gold, Ilarpending mine, Placer County, Cali¬ 
fornia . 

Sulphuret of iron in slate, Harpending mine, Placer County, Cali¬ 
fornia.'. 

Soft slate (auriferous), Harpending mine, Placer County, California. 
Soft slate (auriferous), Harpending mine, Placer County, California. 
Soft slate (auriferous), Harpending mine, Placer County, California. 
Soft slate (auriferous), Harpending mine, Placer County, California. 
Soft slate (ochery), Harpending mine, Placer County, California.... 
Gold-bearing sulphurets, Seaton mine, Amador County, California.. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Moss lode, Arizona. 

Gold-bearing quartz (rich), Vulture lode, Arizona. 

Borax crystals, from Borax Lake, Lake County, California. Cali¬ 
fornia Borax Company. 

Borax crystals, from Borax Lake, Lake County, California. Cali¬ 
fornia Borax Company. 

Borax crystals, from Borax Lake, Lake County, California. CaH- 
, fornia Borax Company. 


187 

188 

189 

190 

191 

192 

193 

194 

195 

196 

197 

198 

199 

200 
201 
202 

203 

204 

205 

206 

207 

208 

209 

210 
211 
212 

213 

214 

215 

216 



































Exhibit. 


No. 


Borax crystals, from Borax Lake, Lake County, California. Cali¬ 
fornia Borax Company. 

Borax crystals, from Borax Lake, Lake County, California. Cali¬ 
fornia Borax Company.... 

Borax crystals, from Borax Lake, Lake County, California. Cali¬ 
fornia Borax Company.. 

Mud, containing large crystals of borax, Borax Lake, Lake County, 

California. California Borax Company.,. 

Mud, containing small crystals of borax, Borax Lake, Lake County, 

California. California Borax Company. 

Borax, small crystals (washed) Borax Lake, Lake County, Califor¬ 
nia. California Borax Company.. 

Mud of Borax Lake (dry), Lake County, California. California 

Borax Company. 

Incrustation, from lake-bed of Borax Lake, Lake County, Cali¬ 
fornia. California Borax Company. 

Crude boracic acid, Lake County, California. California Borax 

Company ... 

Borax refined, Borax Lake, Lake County, California. California 

Borax Company. 

Magnetic iron ore, San Saba, Sierra County, California. Crossman 

& Cochrane, Downieville. 

Magnetic iron ore, San Saba, Sierra County, California. Crossman 

& Cochrane..... 

Magnetic iron ore, Sierra County, California. Cabinet State Agri¬ 
cultural Society. 

Iron ore,' Yankee Hill, Butte County, California. Cabinet State 

Agricultural Society. 

Iron ore, Butte County, California. A. James. 

Magnetic iron ore, Butte County, California. A. James. 

Chrome iron ore, Forbestown, Butte County, California. 

Oxide manganese, Bed Island, San Francisco Bay, California. 

Oxide manganese, Bed Island, San Francisco Bay, California.. 

Oxide manganese with chert, Bed Island, San Francisco Bay, Cali¬ 
fornia ...;.;. 

Oxide manganese, Bed Island, San Francisco Bay, California. 

Copper ore, Planet mine, Arizona. Bichard Byland. 

Silicate of copper, Mineral Hill, Arizona. 

Silver and copper ore, Pueblo mine, Nevada. 

Silver and copper ore, Pueblo mine, Nevada. 

Native gold in semi-opal, King’s mine, Mohawk Valley, Plumas 

County, California. Mr. Scamman, Downieville. 

Free gold in quartz, Keystone mine, Sierra County, California. 

Mr. Scamman, Downieville..,. 

White earth, Tehama County, California. B. G. Sneath.... 

Selenite in transparent plates, Tehama County, California. B. G. 

Sneath .;. 

Gold quartz, Middle Ledge, Silver Mountain, California. 

Steatite (soft), El Dorado County, California. J. Patterson. 

Steatite (hard), El Dorado County, California. J. Patterson. 


217 

218 

219 

220 
221 
222 
228 

224 

225 

226 

227 

228 

229 

230 
281 

232 

233 

234 

235 

236 

237 

238 

239 

240 

241 

242 

243 

244 

245 

246 

247 

248 













































98 


Exhibit. 


No. 


Monterey sand (for glass manufacture), Monterey, Monterey County, 

California. R. T. Holmes. 

Carbonate of magnesia. Napa County, California. R. T. Holmes... 

Hydraulic cement, Benicia, California. B. T. Holmes. 

Hydraulic cement, Benicia, California. 

Auriferous sulphurets, Soulsby mine, Tuolumne County, California.. 

Copper ore, New mine, Tucson, Arizona... 

Auriferous sulphurets, Barrett mine, Mariposa, California. 

White quartz sand, Monterej 7 , Monterey County, California. E. 

Jacks. . 

Cement gravel, near Mokelumne Hill, Calaveras County, California.. 

Gold quartz, Cinderella lode, White Mountains, California. 

Gold in quartz, Eureka mine, Grass 'Valley, California. 

Auriferous sulphurets, Eureka mine, Grass Valley, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Norambagua mine, Grass Valley, California... 
Gold-bearing quartz, Norambagua mine, Grass Valley, California... 
Auriferous sulphurets, Norambagua mine, Grass Valley, California.. 

Cap-rock, Norambagua mine, Grass Valley, California. 

Wall-rock, Norambagua mine, Grass Valley, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Lone Jack mine, Grass Valley, California. 

Gold-bearing quartz, Lone Jack mine. Grass Valley, California. 

Gold in quartz, Lone Jack mine, Grass Valley, California. 

Auriferous sulphurets. Lone Jack mine, Grass Valley, California... 
Gold-bearing quartz, Providence mine, Nevada County, California.. 
Gold-bearing quartz, Providence mine, Nevada County, California.. 
Gold-bearing quartz, Lone Star mine, Nevada County, California... 

Petroleum, Mattole, Humboldt County, California. 

Petroleum, Union Mattole Company, Humboldt County, California.. 
Petroleum, Joel’s Flat, Noble Spring, Humboldt County, California.. 
Petroleum (thick), Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara Count} T , California. 

Petroleum, Wiley Spring, San Fernando Mountains, California. 

Petroleum, Hughes’ Spring, San Fernando Mountains, California... 

Petroleum, Pico Spring, San Fernando Mountains, California. 

Petroleum, Hayward &Coleman claim, Sulphur Mountains,California 
Petroleum, Stanford Brothers’ claim, Sulphur Mountains, California.. 
Petroleum (refined), from oil of Stanford claim, Sulphur Mountains, 

California. 

Petroleum (refined lubricating), from oil of Stanford claim, Sulphur 

Mountains, California. 

Petroleum (crude), Canada Larga, Santa Barbara County, California 

Petroleum (crude), Santa Cruz, Santa Cfruz County, California. 

Petroleum (crude), Bear Creek, Colusa County, California. 

Petroleum (crude), Chas. Stott claim, Santa Barbara County, Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Petroleum (refined), Chas. Stott claim, Santa Barbara County, Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Petroleum (refined lubricating), Chas. Stott claim, Santa Barbara 

County, California. 

Petroleum (refined lubricating),number two, Chas. Stott claim, Santa 

Barbara County, California.. 

Silicificd wood, Nevada County, California. 


249 

250 

251 

252 

253 

254 

255 

256 

257 

258 

259 

260 
261 
262 

263 

264 

265 

266 

267 

268 

269 

270 

271 

272 

273 

274 

275 

276 

277 

278 

279 

280 
281 

282 

283 

284 

285 

286 


287 


288 

289 

290 

291 









































99 


Exhibit. 


No. 


Silicified wood, Nevada County, California . 

Silicified wood, Nevada County, California. 

Silicified wood, Nevada County, California. 

Silicified wood, Nevada County, California. 

Silicified wood, Nevada County, California.. 

Silicified wood, Nevada County California. 

Lava overlying auriferous gravel, Grass Valley, Nevada County, 

California.i*... 

Metampboric rock, from gold belt, Amador County, California. 

Slate, from gold belt, Amador County, California. 

Wall rock of gold veins, Bowlder lode, Placer County. California.... 
Wall rock, Soulsby Lode, Tuolumne County, California. 


292 

293 

294 

295 

296 

297 

298 

299 

300 

301 

302 


The specimens were all carefully numbered as above, and accompanied . 
by labels, giving the locality in full. They wer.e all fresh and character¬ 
istic specimens, and were, generally, about four inches square. The only 
box of specimens sent in for the collection was from Messrs. Crossman & 
Cochrane, of Lownieville, through whom the mines of that vicinity were 
well represented. The Agricultural Society, at Sacramento, contributed' 
some fine specimens from the duplicates in its cabinet. I)r. Harkness 
and Dr. Frey, of Sacramento, sent a large mass of silver ore, weighing 
over one hundred pounds, from the Camanche claim, Blind Springs (No. 
62). This was the largest specimen sent forward, and was separately 
packed. The whole collection filled eleven boxes. 



























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